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COMPENDIOUS  INTROFSQ? ^Olf  i(;|)  S^^l^^ 


STUDY   OF   THE   BIBLE: 


ANALYSIS 


OF 


AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  CRITICAL  STUDY  AND  KNOWLEDGE 
OF  THE  HOLY  SCRIPTURES,"  IN  FOUR  VOLUMES, 
BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR. 


BY  THOMAS  HARTWELL  HORNE. 


NEW-YORK: 

PUBLISHED    BY    J.    ARTHUR,    15   ANN-STREET. 

STEREOTYPED  BY  J.  H.  TURNEY. 

1833. 


ADVERTISEMENT 


LAST  ENGLISH    EDITION; 


The  present  Edition  has  been  carefully  revised  and  cor- 
rected throughout.  A  few  passages,  which  were  consider- 
ed too  critical  to  be  interesting  to  general  readers,  have 
been  omitted ;  and  by  condensing  that  part  which  treats 
on  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture,  the  Author  has  obtain- 
ed room,  without  increasing  the  price  of  the  volume,  for 
various  additions  : — particularly,  a  Table  of  the  principal 
Predictions  relative  to  the  Person  and  Offices  of  the  Mes- 
siah, with  their  Fulfilment,  and  also  a  Geographical 
Index,  abridged  from  his  larger  work,  of  the  most  remark- 
able places  mentioned  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  especially 
in  the  New  Testament.  These  additions,  the  Author 
trusts,  will  be  found  to  render  this  Manual  more  perma- 
nently useful  as  a  Compendious  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  Bible,  and  not  unworthy  a  continuance  of  that  pa- 
tronage with  which  his  labours  have  hitherto  been  ho- 
noured. 


PREFACE. 


The  little  Manual,  now  oifered  to  the  Public,  has 
been  undertaken  in  consequence  of  requests  long  since 
communicated  to  the  Author,  and  frequently  repeated, 
that  he  would  prepare  an  Analysis,  or  Abridgment  of 
the  four  octavo  volumes  of  his  larger  "  Introduction  to 
the  Critical  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures ;"  as  an  assistant  to  the  studies  of  Gentlemen,  at 
the  Universities  and  other  Seminaries  of  Theological 
Literature,  as  also  of  those  individuals  who  may  re- 
spectively possess  that  work,  and  to  whom  such  an 
auxiliary  would  be  acceptable.     At  the  same  time,  the 
present  volume  has  been  so  arranged,  as  to  form  a 
Comprehensive  Guide  to  the  Study  of  the  Bible,  adapt- 
ed to  the  use  of  general  readers  :  it  will  be  found 
to  contain, 

I.  A  Summary  of  the  Evidences  of  the  Genuine- 
ness, Inspiration,  Uc.  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  refuting 
the  most  modern  objections  of  Infidels ; 

II.  An  Outline  of  the  Literary  History  and  Inter- 
pretation of  the  Bible ; 

III.  A  Compendium  of  Biblical  Geography  and 
Antiquities  ;  and 

IV.  Introductory  Prefaces  to  the  several  Books  of 
Scripture. 

In  preparing  this  Manual  for  the  press,  the  order  of 
the  larger  Introduction  has  generally  been  followed ; 
the  Parts  and  Books,  into  which  it  is  divided,  corres- 


PREFACE. 


ponding  with  the  volumes,  and  parts  of  volumes  in  tha* 
work.  Those  bibliographical,  critical,  and  other  de- 
tails only  have  been  omitted,  which  either  would  not 
admit  of  abridgment,  or  which  would  be  uninteresting 
to  the  generahty  of  English  readers. 

The  Author  has  subjoined,  in  an  Appendix,  a  List  of 
Select  Chapters  of  the  Bible,  forming  an  Epitome  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  adapted  to  perusal  in 
the  family,  or  in  private,  together  with  chronological 
and  other  tables  ;  which  he  trusts,  with  the  Divine 
blessing  on  his  labours,  will  contribute  to  facilitate  the 
devout  and  attentive  reading  of  "  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
which  ALONE  are  able  to  make  us  wise  unto  salvation, 
THROUGH  FAITH  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus." 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PART  L 

OR  THE  GENUINENESS,  AUTHENTICITY,  INSPIRATION,  ETC.,  OF  THE 
HOLY  SCRIPTURES. 

Page. 

Chapter  I.  On  the  Necessity,  &c.  of  a  Divine  Revelation ...  I 
Chapter  II.  On  ttie  Genuineness  iind  Authenticity  of  the  Books  of 

the  Old  and  New  Testament 4 

Sect.  I.   Genuineness  and  Authenticity  of  the  Old  Testament    •  ibid. 
Sect   II.    Genuineness  and  Authenticity  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment      ,         'z.     r.  '  ^ 

Sect.  III.  On  the  uncorrupted  Preservation  of  the  Books  of  the 

Old  and  New  Testament  8 

Chapter  III.  On  the  Credibility  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments      •        10 
Sect.  I.  Direct  Evidences  of  the  Credibility  of  the  Old  and  New 

Testaments «*"'• 

Sect.  II.  Testimonies  to  the  Credibility  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments, from  Natural  and  Civil  History         -        -        •        •        14 
§  1.  Testimonies  from  Natural  and  Civil  History  to  the  Cre- 
dibility of  the  Old  Testament »'*»<'• 

§  2.  Testimonies  of  Profane  Writers  to  tJie  Credibility  of  the 

New  Testament 1^ 

§  3.  Collateral  Testimonies  to  the  Truth  of  the  Facts  record 
ed  in  the  Scriptures,  from  ancient  Coins,  Medals,  and  Mar- 
hies       ;     ^^ 

Chapter  IV.  All  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  are  of 

Divine  Authority,  and  their  Authors  are  divinely  inspired    -     ^  24 

Sect.  I.  Preliminai-y  C;onsiderations ilfid. 

Sect.  II.  The  Miracles  related  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
are  Proofs  that  the  Scriptures  were  given  by  Inspiration  of 
God 25 

Sect.  III.  On  Prophecy 37 

Class  I.  Prophecies  relating  to  the  Jewish  Nation  in  parti- 
cular         39 

Class  II.  Prophecies  relating  to  the  Nations  or  Empires  that 

—were  neighbouring  to  the  Jews 41 

Class  III.  Prophecies  directly  announcing  the  Messiah  •        -        42 

Class  IV.  Prophecies  by  Jesus  Christ  and  his  Apostles    -        -        43 

Refutation  of  various  Objections  against  Prophecy         -        •        45 

Chaptkr  V,  Internal  Evidences  of  the  Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures        47 

Sect.  I.  The  System  of  Doctrine  and  the  Moral  Precepts,  which 
are  delivered  in  the  Scriptures,  are  so  excellent  and  so  per- 
fectly holy,  that  the  persons  who  published  them  to  the 
World,  must  have  derived  them  from  a  purer  and  more  ex- 
alted Source  than  their  own  Meditations  ....  ibid. 
9  1.  A  Concise  View  of  the  Religion  of  the  Patriarchal  Times       48 

4  2.  A  Summary  View  of  the  Doctrines  and  Precepts  of  the 
Mosaic  Dispensation 49 

5  3.  A  Summary  View^  of  the  Doctrines  and  Precepts  of  the 
Gospel  Dispensation "^ 


Yi  CONTENTS. 

Page. 

§  4.  On  the  Objections  of  Unbelievers  to  the  Doctrine  and 
Morality  of  the  Bible 53 

Sect.  II.  The  wonderful  Harmony  and  intimate  Connexion 
subsisting  between  all  the  Parts  of  Scripture  are  a  further 
Proof  of  its  Authority  and  Divine  Original       -        -        .        -        68 

Sect.  III.  The  Preservation  of  the  Scriptures  is  a  Proof  of  their 
Truth  and  Divine  Origin ibid. 

Sect.  IV.  TheTendency  of  the  Scriptures  to  promote  the  present 
and  eternal  Happiness  of  Mankind  constitutes  another  unan- 
swerable Proof  of  their  Divine  Inspiration       ....    ibid. 

Sect.  V.  The  peculiar  Advantages  possessed  by  the  Christian 
Religion  over  all  other  Religions,  a  Demonstrative  Evidence 
01  its  Divine  Origin  and  Authority 60 

Sect.  VI.  Inability  to  answer  all  objections,  no  just  cause  for 
rejecting  the  Scriptures. — Unbelievers  in  Divine  Revelation 
more  credulous  than  Christians        ...  -        .        63 

Chapter  VI.  Recapitulation.— Moral  Qualifications  for  the  Study  of 

the  Scriptures 64 


PART  II. 


ON  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY,   CRITICISM,  AND  INTERPRETATION  OF 
THE  SCRIPTURES. 

Book  I. — on  the  literary  history  and  criticism  of  the  scriptures. 


Chapter  I.  On  the  Original  Languages  of  Scripture          -        •        -  67 
Sect.  I.   On  the  Hebrew  Language,  and  the  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch    ibid. 

Sect.  II.  On  the  Greek  Language          .        -        .        -        -        -  69 

Chapter  II.  On  the  Manuscripts  of  the  Bible 71 

Se(;t.  I.  On  the  Hebrew  Manuscripts  of  the  Old  Testament        -  ibid. 
Sect.  II.  Account  of  Greek  Manuscripts  containing  the  Old  and 

New  Testaments -        -  74 

Chapter  HI.  On  the  Divisions  and  Marks  of  Distinction  occurring  in 

the  Old  and  New  Testaments 7S 

Sect.  I.  Divisions  and  Marks  of  Distinction  occurring  in  the  Old 

Testament ibtd. 

Sect.  11.  Divisions  aJid  Marks  of  Distinction  occurring  In  the 

New  Testament 81 

Chapter  IV.  On  the  Ancient  Versions  of  the  Scriptures  .  •  -  82 
Sect.  I.  Of  the  Targums  or  Chaldee  Paraphrases  -  •  •  ibid. 
Sect.  II.  Ancient  Greek  Versions  of  the  Old  Testament  •  -  83 
Sect.  III.  Ancient  Oriental  Versions  of  the  New  Testament  •  80 
Sect.  IV.  Ancient  Western  Versions  of  the  Scriptures  -  -  6^ 
Sect.  V.  Use  and  Application  of  Ancient  Versions  -  -  •  8'J 
Chapter  V.  On  the  Modern  Versions  of  the  Scriptures  -  •  -  90 
Sect.  I.  On  the  Modern  Latin  Versions  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments         'bid. 

Sect.  II.  Versions  in  the  Modem  Languages  of  Europe,  Asia, 

Africa,  and  America 9'-* 

Chapter  VI.    On  the  Various  Readings  occurring  in  the  Old  and 

New  Testaments 100 

Chapter  Vll.   On  the  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the 

New    ...               101 


CONTENTS.  yiJ 

Page. ' 
Chapter  VIII.  On  the  Poetry  oi  the  Hebrews  •        •       •        •108 

Chapter  IX.  On  Harmonies  of  Scripture    -  •        •        •        -111 

Book  U. — on  the  interpretation  of  scbtptttbb. 

Chapter  I.   Of  the  Literal,   Grammatical,  or  Historical   Sense  of 

Scripture 113 

Sect.  I.   Rules  for  Investigating  the  Meaning  of  Words  gene- 
rally      114 

Sect.  J  I.  Aids  for  Investigating  the  Meaning  of  Words  in  com- 
bination        115 

§1.  Of  the  Scope  and  Context  -        -        •'      -        •        -        -  ibid. 
§  2.  Analogy  of  Scripture  or  Parallel  Passages        »        -        -118 

§  3.  Of  the  Analogy  of  Faith 121 

§  4.  Historical  Circumstances 123 

§  5.  Ancient  Versions 127 

§  6.  On  Commentators tbid. 

Chapter  II.    On  the  Interpretation  of  the  Figurative  Language  of 

Scripture 129 

Sect,  I.   General  Observations  on  the  Interpretation  of  Tropes 

and  Figures ibid. 

Sect   II.   On  the  Interpretation  of  the  Metonymies  occurring 

in  Scripture 131 

Sect.  III.    On  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture  Metaphors  and 

Allegories 134 

Sect.  IV.  On  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture  Parables        -        -  136 

Sect.  V.  On  Scripture  Proverbs 138 

Sect   VI.  Concluding  Observations  on  the  Figurative  Language 

of  Scripture -'39 

Chapter  III.  On  the  Spiritual  Interpretation  of  Scripture          -        -  140 

Sect.  I.  General  Observations  on  the  Spiritual  or  Mystical  Sense 

of  Scripture ibid. 

Sect.  II.   Rules  for  the  Spiritual  or  Mystical  Interpretation  of 

Scripture 141 

Sect.  lU.  On  the  Interpretation  of  Types 142 

Chapter  IV.  On  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture  Prophecies       -        -  144 
Chapter  V.    On  the  Doctrinal,  Moral,  and  Practical  Interpretation 

of  Scripture         .        .        .        .' 149 

Sect.   [.  On  the  Doctrinal  Interpretation  of  the  Scriptures          -  ibid. 

Sect.  II.  On  the  Interpretation  of  the  Moral  Parts  of  Scripture  -  151 

Sect.  III.    On  the  Interpretation  of  the  Promises  and  Threalen- 

ings  of  Scripture 152 

Sect.  IV,  On  the  Practical  Reading  of  Scripture         -        -        -  154 


PART  III. 

A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIBLICAL  GEOGRAPHY  AND  ANTiaUITIES. 
Book  I. — a  sketch  op  the  geography  op  the  holy  land 

Chapter  I.  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land  -        -        •       •      158 
Chapter  II.  Physical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land   -        -        •       •      169 

Book  II. — political  antiquities  op  the  jews. 

Chapter  I.   Different  Forms  of  Government,  from  the  Patriarchal 

Times  to  the  Babylonish  Captivity 183 


vm 


CONTENTS. 


Fag» 
Chapter  II.  Political  State  of  the  Jews,  after  their  Return  ftrom  the 
Babylonish  Captivity,  to  the  Subversion  of  their  Civil  and 

Ecclesiastical  Polity 186 

Chapter  III.   Courts  of  Judicature,   Legal  Proceedings,  Criminal 

Law,  and  Punishments  of  the  Jews 191 

Sect.  I.  Jewish  Courts  of  Judicature  and  Legal  Proceedings      -  ibid. 
Sect.  II.  Roman  Judicature,  Manner  of  Trial,  and  Treatment  of 

Prisoners 193 

Sect.  III.  On  the  Criminal  Law  of  the  Jews       ....  195 
Sect.  IV.  On  the  Punishments  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures      -  200 
Chapter  IV.  Jewish  and  Roman  Modes  of  computing  Time,  men- 
tioned in  the  Scriptures 204 

Chapter  V.  Of  the  Tributes  and  Taxes  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. 

Contracts — how  made 208 

Chapter  VI.  Of  the  Military  Affairs  of  the  Jews,  and  other  Nations 

mentioned  in  the  Scriptures 209 

Book  III. — sacred  antiquities  of  the  jews  and  other  nation« 

MENTIONED    IN   THE    SCRIPTURES. 

Chapter  I.  Of  Sacred  Places •       •       •  214 

Sect.  I.  Of  the  Tabernacle ibid. 

Sect.  II.  Of  the  Temple 217 

Sect.  III.  Of  the  High  Places,  Proseuchse,  or  Oratories  of  the 

Jews 222 

Sect.  IV.  On  the  Synagogues  of  the  Jews 223 

Chapter  II.  Sacred  Persons         ........  223 

Sect    I.  Of  the  Jewish  Church  and  its  Members          ...  ibid. 
Sect.  II.  On  the  Ministers  of  the  Temple  and  other  Ecclesiasti- 
cal or  Sacred  Persons 226 

Chapter  III.    Sacred  Things.— On  the  Sacrifices  and  other  Offer- 
ings of  the  Jews          -        -                231 

Chapter  IV.  Sacred  Times  and  Seasons  observed  by  the  Jews  -        •  236 
Chapter  V.  Sacred  Obligations  and  Duties.— Of  Oaths.— Nature  and 

Different  Sorts  of  Vows 242 

Chapter  VL  On  the  Corruptions  of  Religion  by  the  Jews         •        •  245 
Book  IV. — domestic  antiquities  of  the  jews  and  other  nations 

INCIDENTALLY    MENTIONED    IN   THE    SCRIPTURES. 

Chapter  I.  On  the  Dwellings  of  the  Jews 250 

Chapter  II    On  the  Dress  of  the  Jews 253 

Chapter  III.  Marriage  Oistoms  of  the  Jews 254 

Chapter  IV.  Birth,  Education,  &c.  of  Children  -        .        •        '  258 
Chapter  V.  Condition  of  Slaves,  and  the  Customs  relating  to  them, 

nentloned  or  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament        -        .  257 

Chapter  VI.  Domestic  Customs  and  Usages  of  the  Jews  •        .       •  259 

Chapter  VII.  On  the  Occupations,  Arts,  and  Sciences  of  the  Jews  •  262 

Sect  I.  Agriculture  and  Horticulture  of  the  Jews      -        -        •  ibid. 

Sect.  II.  On  the  Arts  and  Sciences  of  the  Jews   ....  266 
Chapter  VIII.  Allusions  to  the  Theatres,  Theatrical  Performances, 

and  to  the  Grecian  Games  In  the  New  Testament  -        •        •  271 

Chapter  IX.  Jewish  Mode  of  treating  the  Dead.— Funeral  Rites      •  273 


CONTENTS.  jj 

PART  IV. 

ON  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  SCRIPTURE. 

Book  I. — analysis  of  the  old  tbstamknt. 

Fage 

Chapter  I.  On  the  Pentateuch    •  276 

Sect.  I.  On  the  Book  of  Genesis ibid. 

Sect.  IT.  On  the  Book  of  Exodus 277 

Sect.  III.  On  the  Book  of  Leviticus 278 

Sect.  rv.  On  the  Book  of  Numbers ibid. 

Sect.  V.  On  the  Book  of  Deutoronomy 280 

Chapter  II.  On  the  Historical  Books  ...                ...  ibid. 

Sect.  I.  On  the  Book  of  Joshua 281 

Sect.  II.  On  the  Book  of  Judges ibid. 

Sect.  Ill  On  the  Book  of  Ruth 282 

Sect.  IV.  On  the  Two  Books  of  Samuel ibid. 

Sect.  V.  On  the  Two  Books  of  Kings 283 

Sect.  \1.  On  the  Two  Books  of  Chronicles 285 

Sect.  ^^I.  On  the  Book  of  Ezra 286 

Sect.  VIII.  On  the  Book  of  Neheraiah tbid. 

Sect  EX.  On  the  Book  of  Esther 287 

Chaptfr  III.  On  the  Poetical  Books 288 

Sect.  I.  On  the  Book  of  Job ibid. 

Sect.  II.  On  the  Book  of  Psalms 289 

Sect.  III.  On  the  Book  of  Proverbs       .......  291 

Sect.  IV.  On  theBook  of  Eccleslastes 292 

Sect.  V.  On  the  Song  of  Solomon 293 

Chapter  IV.    General   Observations  on   the  Prophets  and  their 

Writings 294 

Chapter  V.  On  the  Prophets  who  flourished  before  the  Babylonian 

Captivity 297 

Sect.  I.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Jonah          ....  ibid. 

Sect.  II.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Amos         ....  ibid. 
Sect.  III.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Hosea       -        •        -        -298 

Sect.  IV.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah       .                 .        -  299 

Sect.  V.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Joel     -        .                 •        •  301 

Sect.  VI.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Micah       ....  ibid. 

Sect.  \TI.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Nahum    ....  302 

Sect.  VIII.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Zephaniah     •    •   .       .  303 
Chapter  VI.  Of  the  Prophets  who  flourished  near  to  and  during  the 

Babylonian  Captivity ibid. 

Sect.  I.  On  the  book  of  the  Prophet  Jeremiah    ....  ibid. 

Sect.  II.  On  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah                 .        •        -  305 

Sect.  III.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Habakkuk        .       .        -  ibid. 

Sect.  TV.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Daniel       ....  ibid. 

Sect.  V.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Obadiah             ...  306 

Sect.  VI.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel             -        •        .  307 

Chapter  VTI.  On  the  Prophets  who  flourished  after  the  return  of  the 

Jews  from  Babylon 308 

Sect.  I.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Haggai        ....  ibid. 

Sect.  II.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Zechariah         .        .        .  309 

Sect.  III.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Malachi   ....  ibid. 

Chapter  Vin.  On  the  Apocrypha 310 


X  CONTENTS. 

Book  II. — analysis  op  the  new  testament. 

Page. 

Chapter  I.  On  the  Historical  Books  of  the  New  Testament      -       •  315 

Sect.  I.  On  the  Name  and  Number  of  the  Canonical  Gospels   •  ibid. 

Sect.  II.  On  the  Gospel  by  Saint  Matthew 316 

Sect.  III.  On  the  Gospel  by  Saint  Mark 317 

Sect.  IV.  On  the  Gospel  by  Saint  Luke 318 

Sect.  V.  On  the  Gospel  by  Saint  John 319 

Sect.  VI.  On  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 321 

Chapter  IT.  On  the  Epistolary  or  Doctrinal  Writings  of  the  New 

Testament,  particularly  those  of  Saint  Paul     ....  323 
Sect.  I.  A  Brief  Account  of  the  Apostle  Paul. — Nature  of  the 

Epistolary  Writings  of  the  New  Testament     ....  ibid. 

Sect.  II.  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans        .....  326 

Sect.  III.  On  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians        •                •  328 

Sect.  IV.  On  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians    ...  329 

Sect.  V.  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians      .....  330 

Sect.  VI.  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians    ...                .  ibid. 

Sect.  VII.  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians        -        •        .       •  331 

Sect.  VIII.  On  the  Epistles  to  the  Colossians       ....  ibid. 

Sect.  IX.  On  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians    •        -        •  332 

Sect.  V.  On  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessaloniauis         •       •  333 

Sect.  XI.  On  the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy 334 

Sect.  XII.  On  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy      ....  335 

Sect.  XIII.  On  the  Epistle  to  Titus 336 

Sect  XIV.  On  the  Epistle  to  Philemon 337 

Sect.  XV.  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 338 

Chapter  III.  On  the  Catholic  Epistles 339 

Sect.  I.  On  the  Genuineness  and  Authenticity  of  the  Catholic 

Epistles ibid. 

Sect.  II.  On  the  General  Epistle  of  James 340 

Sect.  III.  On  the  first  General  Epistle  of  Peter    -        ...  341 

Sect.  IV.  On  the  second  General  Epistle  of  Peter        •        •        «  343 

Sect.  V.  On  the  first  General  Epistle  of  Saint  John     •        .        .  ibid. 

Sect.  VI.  On  the  Second  and  third  Epistles  of  Saint  John  -        -  345 

Sect.  VII.  On  the  General  Epistle  of  Saint  Jude  ....  346 

Chapter  IV.  On  the  Revelation  of  Saint  John  the  Divine  •  347 


APPENDIX. 

No.  L  Tables  of  Weights,  Measures,  and  Money,  mentioned  In  the 

Bible 361 

IL  A  Table  of  the  Order  and  Dates  of  the  Books  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament     353 

in.  A  Table  of  the  Psalms,  classed  according  to  their  several  sub- 
jects, and  adapted  to  the  Purposes  of  Private  Devotion       •      354 

IV.  A  Table  or  List  of  Select  Chapters  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
forming  an  Epitome  of  the  Bible,  and  adapted  to  Family  or 

Private  Reading 355 

V.  A  List  comprising  the  most  necessary  works  upon  the  Holy 

Scriptures 363 

VI.  A  concise  Chronological  Table  of  the  Principal  Epochs  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments        ....      364 

VII.  A  Table  of  the  principal  Prophecies  relative  to  the  Messiah, 

with  their  accomplishment  as  related  in  the  New  Testament     369 
INDEXES. 

1.  Geographical  Index  of  the  principal  Places  mentioned  in  the 

Scriptures,  especially  the  New  Testament      •       •       •       •      37& 

2.  Index  of  Matters 386 


CONTENTS.  3JJ 


LIST  OF  ENGRAVINGS. 

I.  A  Map  of  Palestine,  or  the  Holy  Land,  with  the  Divisions  into 

Tribes — to  face  the  Title-page. 
II.  A  Map  of  Judaea,  adapted  to  the  Gospel  History — to  face  page  163. 
in.  A  Map  of  the  Travels  of  the  Apostles — to  face  page  322. 
IV.  Vignette  of  the  Grotto  at  Nazareth,  said  to  have  been  the  House 

of  Joseph  and  Mary — inserted  in  page  158. 
V.  Vignette,  representing  Mount  Tabor,  as  seen  from  the  Plain  of 

Esdraelon — inserted  in  page  169. 
VI.  Vignette,  representing  a  Coin,  struck  by  order  of  Titus,  to  com- 
memorate the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  (from  the  original  in  the 
Cabinet  of  the  British  Museum)— inserted  in  page  23. 
VII.  Vignette,  representing  the  Golden  Candlestick,  used  in  the  second 
Temple,  from  the  Triumphal  Arch  of  Titus,  at  Rome— inserted  in 
^^         page  217. 

Vlll.  Vignette,  representing  the  Table  of  Shew-bread,  from  the  Trium- 
phal Arch  of  Titus — inserted  in  page  221. 
K.  Vignette,  representing  a  Synagogue  Roll  of  the  Pentateuch  (drawn 
firom  the  original  in  the  British  Museum)— inserted  in  page  71, 
and  also  in  the  Title- Page. 


A 

COMPENDIOUS  INTRODUCTION 

TO 

THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE, 

ETC.,   ETC. 

PART  I 

ON  THE  GENUINENESS,  AUTHENTICITY,  INSPIRATION,  ETC.,  OF  THE 
HOLY  SCRIPTURES. 

CHAPTER  I. 

ON  THB  NECESSITY,    ETC.,   OP  A  DIVINE  REVELATIOM, 

I.  Revelation  defined. 

Revelation  is  a  discovery  by  God  to  man  of  Himself  or 
of  his  will,  over  and  above  what  He  has  made  known  by 
the  light  of  nature,  or  reason. 

II.  A  Divine  Revelation  possible. 

No  one,  who  believes  that  there  is  a  God  of  infinite 
wisdom,  power,  and  knowledge,  can  reasonably  deny  the 
possibility  of  His  making  a  revelation  of  Himself,  and  of 
his  will  to  men,  in  an  extraordinary  way,  different  from 
the  discoveries  made  by  men  themselves,  in  the  mere 
natural  and  ordinary  use  of  their  own  powers.  To  ad- 
mit the  existence  of  a  God,  and  to  deny  him  such  a  power, 
is  a  glaring  contradiction.  Though  we  cannot  explain 
in  what  manner  ideas  originate,  or  are  impressed  upon  the 
human  mind  ;  yet,  since  we  know  that  this  is  effected  jn 
various  ways,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  God  can 
act  upon  the  mind,  in  order  to  impart  to  us  the  know- 
ledge of  his  will.  And,  if  so,  he  can  do  it  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  give  those,  to  whom  such  revelation  is  made,  an 
assurance  that  it  proceeds  from  himself. 


2  NECESSITY  OF  A 

III.  The  Probability  of  such  Revelation  appears  from 
the  two  following  arguments  : 

1.  From  the  general  sense  of  mankind  in  every  age, 
who  believed  that  divine  revelations  were  probable :  and 
from  the  credit  given  to  pretended  revelations,  thus  evin- 
cing a  consciousness  of  their  own  ignorance,  and  the  need 
of  a  supernatural  illumination. 

2.  From  the  confession  of  some  of  the  wisest  philoso- 
phers, that  they  stood  in  need  of  such  a  revelation,  and 
the  hope  they  expressed  that  God  would  at  some  future 
time  vouchsafe  to  make  one 

IV.  Divine  revelation  is  not  only  possible  and  proba- 
ble, but  NECESSARY  '. 

1.  From  the  utter  inability  of  mere  human  reason  to 
attain  any  certain  knowledge  of  the  will  or  law  of  God,  of 
the  true  happiness  of  man,  or  of  a  future  state,  as  is  evi- 
dent from  the  endless  differences  and  inconsistencies,  which 
prevailed  among  the  most  celebrated  ancient  philosophers, 
some  of  whom  taught  immoral  doctrines,  while  the  influ- 
ence of  all  was  very  inconsiderable,  both  in  rectifying  the 
notions,  and  in  reforming  the  lives  of  mankind.     Thus 

(1.)  Their  ideas  respecting  the  Nature  and  Worship  of  God 
were  dark,  confused,  and  imperfect. 

(2.)  They  were  ignorant  of  the  true  account  of  the  Creation 
of  the  World.    Also, 

(3.)  Of  the  origin  of  Evil,  and  the  cause  of  the  depravity 
and  misery  which  actually  exist  among  mankind. 

(4.)  Of  any  Method  by  \vliich  a  Reconciliation  could  be  ef- 
fected between  God  and  man. 

(5.)  Of  Divine  Grace  and  Assistance  towards  our  attainment 
of  Virtue  and  perseverance  in  it. 

(6.)  They  had  only  dark  and  confused  notions  of  the  Sum- 
mum  Bonuin  or  Supreme  Felicity  of  man : 

(7.)  Thev  had  weak  and  imjierfect  notions  concerning  the 
Immortality  of  the  Soul ;  and  also  concerning 

(8.)  The  Certainty  of  the  Eternal  Rewards  and  Punish- 
ments of  a  Future  State,  and  the  Resurrection  of  the  Body. 

2.  From  the  defective  instructions  of  the  best  of  the 
philosophers,  which,  moreover,  were  unsuited  to  the  com- 
mon people,  and  which  they  wanted  authority  to  enforce 
in  practice. 

3.  From  the  gross  ignorance  and  idolatry  universally 
'prevalent  among  unenlightened  heathen  nations. 


DIVINE  REVELATION.  3 

V.  Refutation  of  the  Objection  that  Philosophy  and 
Right  Reason  are  sufficient  to  instruct  men  in  their  duty. 

Answer  1.  It  is  a  fact,  that  the  doctrines  of  Christ  have  had 
a  more  powerful  influence  upon  men,  than  all  the  reasonings 
of  philosophers:  and  though  modern  opposers  of  Revelation 
ascribe  the  ignorance  and  corruption  of  the  heathen,  not  to  the 
insufficiency  of  the  light  of  reason,  but  to  their  non- improve- 
ment of  that  hght ;  yet,  if  this  were  true,  it  would  not  prove 
that  there  is  no  need  of  a  revelation,  because  it  is  certain 
that  the  philosophers  wanted  some  higher  assistance  than  that 
of  reason. 

2.  Notwithstanding  the  pretences  of  modern  deists  to  su- 
perior wisdom,  it  is  a  fact  that  they  have  borrowed  almost  all 
their  wise  and  true  observations  from  divine  revelation.  It  is 
one  thing  to  perceive  that  the  rules  of  hfe,  which  are  laid  be- 
fore us,  are  agreeable  to  reason,  and  another  thing  to  discover 
them  by  the  mere  light  of  reason. 

3.  Besides,  the  speculations  of  modern  deists,  concerning 
religion,  are  so  glaringly  contradictory,  and  their  ethical  pre- 
cepts are  so  utterly  subversive  of  every  principle  of  morality, 
as  to  demonstrate  the  necessity  of  a  divine  revelation  7iou\  in 
order  to  lead  mankind  to  the  knowledge  of  God,  and  of  their 
duty  to  one  another. 

VI.  Possible  Means  of  affording  a  Revelation. 
There  appears  to  be  only  two  ways  of  doing  this,  viz.   1. 

An  immediate  Revelation  to  each  individual ;  or,  2.  A 
Commission  given  by  God  to  certain  persons  to  make 
known  his  will,  accompanied  with  indisputable- credentials 
of  their  being  delegated  by  him.  The  former  method 
would  be  ineffectual :  for  either  the  freedom  of  the  will 
must  be  destro}  cd,  or  else  it  would  fill  the  world  with  con- 
tinual impostures  and  pretences  to  revelation.  The  latter 
method,  therefore,  is  the  most  eligible  and  satisfactory  ; 
and  writing  was  the  best  means  of  transmitting  such  a 
revelation,  on  account  of 

1.  The  uncertainty  and  insecurity  of  oral  tradhion. 

2.  The  greater  security  and  permanence  of  writing. 

8.  The  fairness  and  openness,  which  is  the  result  of 
writing. 

4.  The  importance  of  the  matter,  the  variety  of  the 
subjects,  and  the  design  of  the  institutions  contained  in 
the  books,  which  Jews  and  Christians  receive  as  contain- 
ing a  divine  revelation. 


^ 


GENUINENESS  AND  AUTHENTICITY 


CHAPTER  II. 

OH   THB  GBIfUUIBNBSS   AND   AUTHENTIC  FT  Y   OP  TQB   BOOKS  OP  THB  OLD  AND  NKW 

TBSTAMBNT. 

Section  I. — Genuineness  and  Authenticity  of  the  Old  Tealament. 

I.  Genuineness  and  Aojthenticity  defined. 

A  Genuine  Book  is  one,  that  is  written  by  the  person 
whose  name  it  bears. — An  Authentic  Book  is  one  in 
which  matters  of  fact  are  related,  as  they  really  hap- 
pened. 

There  are  two  classes  of  proof;  1.  Historical  Testi- 
mony or  External  Evidence  ;  and  2.  Internal  Evidence 
arising  from  an  examination  of  the  Books  tliemselves. 

H.  Historical  Testimony,  or  External  Evidence. 

1.  The  persons,  contemporary  with  any  Hebrew  wri- 
ter whose  books  they  transcribed,  knew  by  whom  they 
were  written  ;  and,  having  a  certain  knowledge  of  the 
author  and  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  delivered  them 
to  their  descendants,  and   these  again  to  their  posterity. 

2.  The  small  number  of  books,  extant  at  the  time  when 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  were  written,  would  render 
fault  impossible. 

3.  The  Hebrews  or  Jews,  by  testifying  that  these  books 
are  genuine,  become  witnesses  against  themselves,  and 
their  testimony  consequently  is  unexceptionable. 

4.  A  particular  tribe  was  consecrated  for  the  express 
purpose  of  watching  over  the  preservation  of  these  books. 

5.  The  testimony  of  the  ancient  Jews,  of  which  we  have 
an  unbroken  chain ;  and  the  fact  tliat  the  Greek  version 
of  the  Old  Testament,  usually  called  the  Septuagint,  was 
executed  at  Alexandria  two  hundred  and  eighty-two  years 
before  the  Christian  era. 

HI.  Internal  Evidence,  arising  from  an  examination 
of  the  Books  themselves. 

Arg.  1.  The  difference  in  language,  style,  and  manner 
of  writing,  proves  that  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament 
must  have  been  written  at  various  times  and  by  different 
persons.  As  Hebrew  ceased  to  be  spoken  as  a  living 
language  soon  after  the  Babylonish  captivity,  all  those 
books  must  be  nearly  as  ancient  as  that  captivity :  and 


OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  g 

as  they  could  not  all  be  written  in  the  same  age,  some  must 
be  considerably  more  ancient. 

Arg.  2.  The  multitude  of  minutely  particular  circum- 
stances of  time,  place,  persons,  &c.,  mentioned  in  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  is  a  further  argument  both  of  their 
genuineness  and  authenticity  ;  because  no  forger  of  false 
accounts  superabounds  in  such  peculiarities,  or  could  fur- 
nish them ;  and  because  such  forgeries  or  falsehoods  could 
be  easily  detected  and  exposed. 

IV.  Proofs  of  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the 
Pentateuch  in  particular. 

This  is  manifest. 

1.  From  the  language  in  which  it  is  written,  the  sim- 
p  icity  and  archaisms  of  which  prove  it  to  be  the  earliest 
of  all  the  Hebrew  sacred  books 

2.  From  the  Nature  of  the  Mosaic  Law,  as  contained 
in  the  four  last  books  of  Moses. 

These  books  contain  a  system  of  ceremonial  and  moral  laws ; 
which,  unless  we  reject  the  authority  of  all  history,  were  ob- 
served by  the  Israelites,  from  their  departure  out  of  Eerypt  until 
their  dispersion  at  the  taking-  of  Jerusalem.  Their  civil  and  re- 
ligious polity  are  so  inseparably  connected,  and  many  of  their 
institutions  are  so  connected  with  historical  facts,  as  to  render 
forgery  impossible. 

3.  From  the  United  Historical  Testimony  of  Jews  and 
Gentiles 

[i.]  Jevnsh  TestimoJiy  .-—Jesus  Christ,  Ezra,  Daniel,  Solo- 
mon, David,  jMoses,  and  others ;  to  which  is  to  be  added  the 
fact,  that  the  law  of  INIoses  was  received  by  both  Jews  and  Sa- 
maritans before  ihey^  becamie  divided  into  two  kingdoms. 

[ii.]  Gentile  Testimony  .-—Maneiho,  Eupolemus,  Artapanus, 
Tacitus,  Diodoriis,  Siculus,  Strabo,  Justin,  the  abbreviator  of 
Trogus,  Juvenal,  and  many  other  writers,  testify  that  Moses 
was  the  leader  of  the  Jews,  and  the  founder  of  their  laws.  The 
great  critic  Longinus,  and  Numenius,  a  Pythagorean  philoso- 
pher of  Apamea,  in  Syria,  both  speak  highly  of  Moses:  and 
Porphyry  admitted  the  genuineness  of  the  Pentateuch.  The 
Egyptian,  Greek,  and  Roman  authors  concur  in  relating  the 
tradition  respecting  the  creation,  the  fall  of  man,  the  deluge, 
and  the  dispersion  of  mankind. 

4.  From  the  contents  of  the  Pentateuch. 

The  frequent  genealogies  prove  that  it  was  composed 
by  a  writer  of  very  early  date,  and  from  original  mate- 
riak. 


g  GENUINENESS  AND  AUTHENTICITY 

The  geographical  details  of  places  bespeak  a  writer 
personally  present  at  the  transactions  recorded. 

The  frequent  repetitions,  which  occur  in  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  the  neglect  of  order  in  delivering  the  precepts, 
are  strong  proofs,  that  it  has  come  down  to  us  precisely 
as  it  was  written  by  JMoses ;  to  which  may  be  added  co- 
incidences, so  minute,  latent,  indirect,  and  undesigned, 
tliat  they  could  only  have  been  produced  by  reality  and 
truth  influencing  the  mind  and  the  pen  of  the  legislator. 


Section  II. — Genuineness  and  Authenticity  of  the  New  Testament 

I.  General  Title  of  the  New  Testament. 

Every  thing  we  know  concerning  the  belief,  worship, 
manners,  and  discipline  of  the  first  Christians,  corresponds 
with  the  contents  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  now 
extant,  and  which  therefore  are  most  certainly  the  primi- 
tive instructions  which  they  received.  The  collection  of 
these  books  is  known  by  the  appellation  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament or  New  Covenant,  (because  it  contains  the  terms 
of  the  new  covenant,  upon  which  God  is  pleased  to  offer 
salvation  through  the  mediation  of  Jesus  Christ;)  in  op- 

Sosiiion  to  the  doctrines,  precepts,  and  promises  of  the 
losaic  dispensation,  which  Saint  Paul   terms  the  Old 
Covenant. 

II.  Canon  of  the  New  Testament. 

The  records,  thus  collectively  termed  the  New  Testa- 
ment, consist  of  twenty-seven  books,  composed  on  various 
occasions,  and  at  different  times  and  places,  by  eight  dif- 
ferent authors  contemporary  with  Jesus  Christ,  whose  his- 
tory they  either  relate,  together  with  the  first  propagation 
of  his  roliq-inn,  or  unfold  the  doctrines,  principles,  and 
precepts  of  Christianity. 

III.  The  GexuIjNENEss  and  Authenticity  of  the  New 
Testament  are  proved,  not  only  from  arguments  which 
demonstrate  that  it  is  not  spurious,  but  also  from  positive 
evidence  arising  from  the  impossibility  of  forgery,  and 
from  direct  external  or  historical  evidence. 

Of  all  the  grounds,  that  either  have  been  or  may  be  as- 
signed for  denying  a  work  to  be  genuine,  not  one  can  just- 
ly be  applied  to  the  New  Testament:  for, 


OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT.  7 

1.  No  one  doubted  of  its  genuineness  and  authenticity 
when  it  first  appeared. 

2.  No  ancient  accounts  are  on  record,  whence  we  may 
conclude  it  to  be  spurious. 

3.  No  considerable  period  of  time  elapsed  after  the 
death  of  the  Apostles,  in  which  the  New  Testament  was 
unknown.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  mentioned  not  only  by 
tiieir  contemporaries,  but  also  by  succeeding  writers. 

4.  No  arguments  can  be  brought  in  its  disfavour  from 
the  nature  of  its  style,  which  is  exactly  such  as  might  be 
expected  from  the  writers  of  its  several  books. 

5.  No  facts  are  recorded,  which  happened  after  the 
deatii  of  the  apostles. 

6.  No  doctrines  or  precepts  are  maintained,  which  con- 
tradict their  known  tenets. 

IV.  Positive  Evidence  : 

1.  The  absolute  impossibility  of  forgery  arising  from 
the  nature  of  the  thing  itself;  because  it  is  impossible  to 
establish  forged  writings  as  authentic  where  there  are  per- 
sons strongly  inclined  and  quahfied  to  detect  fraud,  as  was 
tlie  case  both  with  Jews  and  Gentiles. 

2.  External  or  Historical  Evidence. 

[i.]  The  Books  of  the  New  Testament  are  quoted  or  alluded 
to,  times  innumerable,  by  a  series  of  Christian  writers  as  well 
as  by  adversaries  of  the  Christian  faith,  who  may  be  traced 
back  in  regular  succession  from  the  present  time  to  the  aposto- 
lic aire. 

[ii.]  The  Ancient  Versions  of  the  new  testament  are  another 
important  evidence  for  its  genuineness  and  authenticity,  as  well 
as  of  its  antiquity ;  some  of  them  (as  the  Syriac  and  several 
Latin  versions)  beins:  made  so  early  as  the  close  of  the  first,  or 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  century. 

3.  Internal  Evidence  of  the  Genuineness  and  Authen- 
ticity of  the  New  Testament. 

fi.]  The  Character  of  the  Writers  of  the  New  Testament : 

They  are  said  to  have  been  Jews  by  birth,  and  of  the  Jewish 

religion,  and  immediate  witnesses  of  the  events  which  they  have 

recorded.    And  every  page  of  their  writings  corresponds  with 

their  actual  character. 

[ii.J  The  Language  and  Style.— The  Language  is  Greek, 
which  was  a  kind  of  universal  languasre,  just  as  the  French 
now  is :  but  it  is  Hebrew-Greek,  ?.  e.  Greek  intermixed  with 
many  peculiarities  from  the  native  dialect  of  the  Jews  of  Pales- 
tine, and  consequently  such  as  we  might  expect  from  the  per- 


3  GENUINENESS  AND  AUTHENTICITY 

eons,  to  whom  the  several  parts  of  the  New  Testament  are 
ascribed. 

The  ^tyle  or  manner  of  writing,  too,  is  such  as  sliows  that  its 
authors  were  born  and  educated  in  the  Jewish  reh£:ion. 

[iii.J  The  Circu.mstantiality  of  the  narrative,  and  the 
conic idence  of  the  accounts  dehvered  in  the  New  Testament 
with  the  history  of  those  times,  are  also  an  indisputable  internal 
evidence  of  its  authenticity. 


Section  III.— On  the  Uncorrupled  Preservation  of  the  Books  of  the  Old  and 

New  Testament. 

I.  The  Uncorrupted  Preservation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  proved  from  the  impossibility  of  its  being  cor- 
rupted :  for 

1.  Tliere  is  no  proof  or  vestige  whatever  of  any  pre- 
tended aheration  :  if  the  Jews  had  w  ilfully  corrupted  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  before  the  time  of  Christ  and 
his  apostles,  the  prophets  would  not  have  passed  such  an 
heinous  offence  in  silence :  and,  if  they  had  been  corrupt- 
ed in  the  time  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  these  would  not 
have  failed  to  censure  the  Jews.  If  they  had  been  muti- 
lated or  corrupted  after  the  time  of  Christ,  the  Jews 
would  unquestionably  have  expunged  the  falsified  prophe- 
cies concerning  Christ,  which  were  cited  by  him  and  by 
his  apostles. 

2.  In  foct,  neither  before  nor  after  the  time  of  Christ 
could  the  Jews  corrupt  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  ;  for,  brfore 
that  event,  any  forgery  or  material  corruption  would  be 
rendered  impossible  by  the  reverence  paid  to  these  books 
by  the  Jews  tliemselves,  the  publicity  cfiven  to  their  con- 
tents by  the  reading  of  the  law  in  public  and  in  private, 
and  by  tiie  jealousies  sul)sisting  between  tlie  Jews  and 
Samaritans,  and  between  the  different  sects  into  which 
the  Jews  were  divided.  And  since  the  birth  of  Ciirist, 
the  Jews  and  Christians  have  been  a  mutual  guard  and 
check  upon  each  otiier. 

3.  The  Agreement  of  all  the  Manuscripts. 

II.  The  integrity  and  uncorruptness  of  the  books  of 
tlie  Nkw  Testament  is  manifest, 

1.  From  their  contents;  for,  so  early  as  tin*  two  first 
centuries  the  veri/  same  facts  and  doctrines  were  univcr- 


OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  9 

sally  received  by  the  Christians,  which  we  at  this  time  be- 
lieve on  the  credit  of  the  New  Testament. 

2.  Because  an  universal  corruption  of  those  writings 
was  both  impossible  and  impracticable,  in  consequence 
of  the  early  dispersion  of  copies,  which  were  multiplied 
and  disseminated,  either  in  the  original  Greek  or  in  trans- 
lations, as  rapidly  as  the  boundaries  of  the  church  in- 
creased, and  also  of  the  effectual  check  interposed  by  the 
various  sects  that  existed  in  the  Christian  church. 

3.  From  the  agreement  of  all  the  manuscripts,  the  va- 
rious readings  in  which  are  not  only  of  so  little  moment, 
as  not  to  affect  any  article  of  faith  or  practice  ;  but  they 
also  prove  that  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  exist  at 
present,  in  all  essential  points,  precisely  the  same  as  they 
were,  when  they  left  the  hands  of  their  authors. 

4.  From  the  agreement  of  the  ancient  versions  of  these 
books,  and  the  quotations  made  from  them  in  the  writings 
of  the  Christians  of  the  three  first  centuries,  and  in  those 
of  the  succeeding  fathers  of  the  church. 

III.  That  no  canonical  books  of  Scripture  have  been 
lost,  may  be  proved  by  the  following  considerations,  viz  : 

1.  The  ordinary  conduct  of  Divine  Providence,  and 
the  care  which  the  Divine  Being  has  in  all  ages  taken  to 
preserve  these  books. 

2.  The  zeal  of  the  faithful  to  preserve  their  sacred 
books. 

3.  The  dispersion  of  these  books  into  the  most  distant 
countries  and  into  the  hands  of  innumerable  persons. 

IV.  With  regard  to  the  Old  Testament,  more  particu- 
larly, we  may  conclude,  that,  if  any  books  seem  to  be 
wanting  in  our  present  canon,  they  are  either  such  as  are 
still  remaining  in  the  Scriptures,  unobserved,  under  other 
appellations  ;  or  they  are  such  as  never  were  accounted 
canonical,  and  contained  no  points  essential  to  the  salva- 
tion of  man.  Consequently  they  are  such  of  which  we 
may  safely  remain  ignorant  here,  and  for  which  we  shall 
never  be  responsible  hereafter 

V.  The  same  observation  applies  with  equal  force  to 
the  Books  of  the  New  Testament ;  in  which  some  learned 
men  have  imagined  that  they  have  discovered  allusions 
to  writings  no  longer  extant ;  but  on  examination,  their 
conjectures  prove  to  be  destitute  of  foundation.     Thus  the 


IQ  ON  THE  CREDIBILITY  OP 

expression  Eypaxpa  I  have  written,  in  1  Cor.  v.  9,  (which 
has  given  rise  to  a  supposition  that  St.  Paul  had  already 
written  an  epistle  to  the  Corinthian  Church,  that  is  no 
longer  extant,)  may  probably  be  put  for  Fpa^w,  J  write  ; 
there  being  nearly  one  hundred  instances  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, in  which  the  past  tense  is  put  for  the  present. — 
So  also,  the  expression  n  En-troX>?  «  AaoiiKcias — the  Epistle 
from  Laodicea  (Col.  iv.  16,)  which  seems  to  intimate 
that  the  same  apostle  had  previously  written  an  epistle  to 
the  church  at  Laodicea,  is  in  all  probability  that  which  is 
called  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  Laodicea  being  within 
the  circuit  of  the  Ephesian  Church. 


CHAPTER  in. 

ON  THE  CREDIBILITY   OF  THE   OLD   AND   NEW   TESTAMENTS. 

Section  I.— Direct  evidences  of  the  Credibility  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. 

1.  The  writers  of  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments had  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  subjects  which 
they  relate  :  and  their  moral  character,  though  rigidly 
tried,  was  never  impeached  by  their  keenest  opponents. 

IL  If  there  had  been  any  falsehood  in  the  accounts  of 
such  transactions  as  were  public  and  generally  known,  it 
could  (and doubtless  would)  have  been  easily  detected  :  for 
these  accounts  were  published  among  the  people,  who 
witnessed  the  events  related  by  the  historians.  But  this 
was  not  the  case  with  the  writings,  either  of  Moses  and 
the  Prophets,  or  of  the  Evangelists. 

1.  It  is  impossible  that  Moses  could  have  asserted  false- 
hoods in  his  writings  :  for 

[i.]  If  he  liad  been  an  impostor,  it  is  nlterly  incredible  that 
he  could  have  given  to  men  so  perfect  and  holy  a  law  as  he 
did. 


rii.]  As  Moses  had  been  educated  in  all  the  learnins:  of 
the  Eiry  i)tians.  and  was  not  of  a  ra.^b.  credulous,  or  suporsiiiious 
♦^•niixT,  lie  could  not  possibly  liavc  been  liimsclf  diTcivcd. 

fiii.  1  It  is  absolutely  incredible  that  he  should  or  could  liave 


imposed  on  the  Israelites,  as  true,  tlnnsrs  that  were  notoriously 
false,  and  of  the  falsehood  of  which  thcv  could  convict  hnn  : 
for  he  relates  facts  and  events  which  had  taken  place  in  the 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  ]  | 

presence  of  six  hundred  thousand  men ;  and  urges  the  reahty 
and  truth  of  those  facts  upon  them,  as  motives  to  beheve  and 
obey  the  new  religion  which  he  had  introduced  among  them, 
[iv.]  We  cannot  conceive  for  what  end  or  with  what  view 
Moses  could  have  invented  all  these  things.  He  sought  nei- 
ther riches  nor  honours  for  himself,  and  he  left  neither  offices 
of  honour  nor  emoluments  to  his  children.  He  did  not  write 
to  flatter  his  nation,  nor  did  he  conceal  his  own  failings,  or  at- 
tempt to  palliate  or  excuse  the  errors  or  sins  of  his  countrymen. 

These  observations  are  equally  applicable  to  the  wri- 
ters who  succeeded  Moses. 

2.  The  credibility  of  the  Writers  of  the  books  op 
THE  New  Testament  is  established  on  evidence  equally 
conclusive  with  that  adduced  for  the  old  Testament. 
For 

(1.)  The  actions  ascribed  to  Jesus  Christ  in  the  New 
Testament  are  of  such  a  description,  that  they  could  not 
possibly  have  been  recorded,  if  they  had  not  been  true. 
Plain  and  unlettered  Jews,  as  the  apostles  were,  though 
adequate  to  the  office  of  recording  what  they  had  seen  and 
heard,  v/ere  incapable  of  fabricating  a  series  of  actions, 
which  constituted  the  most  exalted  character  that  ever 
lived  upon  earth.  It  is,  indeed,  highly  probable,  that  the 
apostles  and  evangelists  were  not  wholly  aware  of  that 
perfection  which  they  themselves  have  described :  for  it 
is  not  contained  in  any  formal  paneg3ric,  but  is  known 
only  by  comparison  and  inference.  Whence  it  follows, 
that  the  actions  which  are  ascribed  to  Jesus  Christ,  either 
are  truly  ascribed  to  him,  or  they  have  been  invented  for 
a  purpose,  of  which  the  inventors  themselves  were  proba- 
bly not  aware,  viz.  the  delineating  of  a  model  of  perfec- 
tion ;  and  applied  to  that  purpose  by  means  which  the 
inventors  did  not  possess.  And  when  we  further  consider 
that  the  plan,  developed  by  those  facts,  was  in  direct 
opposition  to  the  notion  and  expectation  of  ^le  Jews 
respecting  a  temporal  Messiah,  it  is  impossible  to  believe 
that  the  apostles  could  have  invented  them. 

(2.)  The  apostles  could  not  he  deceived  in  the  facts 
which  they  have  recorded;  because 

[i.]  They  were  competent  witnesses  of  the  facts  which  they 
attested  :  and  their  testimony  respected  facts  which  they  had 
themselves  witnessed  with  their  eyes  and  with  their  ears.  (See 
1  John  i.  1—3.,  and  2  Peter  i.  ItJ.)    They  had  lived  with  Jesua 


^' 


12  ON  THE  CREDIBILITY  OF 

Christ  during  his  ministry ;  they  had  heard  his  discourses ;  they 
had  seen  hie  wonderful  works,  and  consequently  received  them 
on  the  testimony  of  their  own  senses.  They  had  all  the  same 
knowledge  and  in  tiie  same  degree,  and  they  all  agree  in  the 
sanie  essential  testimony. 

ii.]  They  were  neither  enthusiasts  nor  fanatics.  . 
riiey  were  not  eiithusiasts :  for  they  became  Christ's  disci- 
ples, not  upon  internal  persuasion  alone,  but  upon  rational  con- 
viction, arising  from  proofs  submitted  alike  to  the  judgment  of 
their  minds  and  to  the  evidence  of  their  senses,  which^enthusi- 
asm  could  not  have  counterfeited,  and  would  never  have  re- 
quired :  and,  at  every  step  of  their  progress,  as  their  faith  was 
called  to  signalise  itself  by  new  exerrions,'or  to  sustain  new 
trials,  it  was  fortified  by  new  proofs.  Their  slowness  and  cau- 
tion in  giving  credit  to  miraculous  operations,  particularly  the 
accounfof  their  Master's  resurrection  from  the  dead,  exempt 
them  from  all  suspicion  of  being  the  dupes  of  delusion  and 
credulity.  Throughout  their  writings  the  utmost  impartiality, 
sobriety,  and  modesty  prevail;  and,  contrary  to  the  practice 
of  enthusiasts,  they  record  their  own  mistakes,  folhes,  and 
faults. 

Neither  were  they  fanatics.— T\\\s  is  evinced  by  the  style  of 
the  New  Testament,  which  is  the  very  reverse  of  fanaticism, 
which  is  always  obscure,  arrogant,  and  violent.  Though  they 
insist  on  the  necessity  of  receiving  and  believing  the  Christian 
system,  yet  they  equally  condemn  all  spirit  of  persecution  and 
all  rehgious  differences. 

(3.)  As  they  could  not  be  deceived  themselves,  so  they 
NEITHER  would  NOE  did  deceive  others. 

The  whole  tenor  of  their  lives  proved  (what  their  adversaries 
conf(>ssed)  that  they  were  men  of  piety  and  integrity.  If  the 
evangf'lists  and  apostles  had  confederated  to  iiupose  upon  nian- 
kini,  it  is  incredible  that  none  of  their  associates  should  not 
have  confessed  the  fraud.  They  had  nothing  to  gain  by  obtru- 
dinir  lalsehoods ;  but,  on  tlie  contrary,  they  were  exi)osed  to 
the  loss  of  every  thing,  even  of  life  itself,  for  preaching  the  doc- 
trine of  the  cross,  and  bearing  witness  to  the  truth  of  Christi- 
anity. It  is  also  utterly  incredible,  that  so  many  precepts  of 
piety  and  virtue  should  have  been  delivered  by  men  cf  such 
abandoned  principles  as  they  must  have  been,  had  they  really 
been  im|)Ostors.  Still  less  is  it  to  be  credited  on  that  supposition, 
that  tliey  performed  miracles,  (the  reality  of  which  was  ac- 
knowledged by  their  enemies,)  in  confirmation  of  their  doctrine. 
Lasllv,  it  the  aixjstles  and  evangelists  had  designed  to  impose 
upon  mankind,  they  would  have  accommodated  themselves  to 
the  iiumours  of  the  people  whom  they  addressed  ;  and  would 
carefully  have  avoided  whatever  might  siiock  or  offend  them: 
whereas  they  acted  in  <iuite  a  different  manner. 

(4.)  On  the  contrary,  they  were  men  of  the  strictest 

mTEGRlTY  and   SINCERITY. 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  23 

This  is  evident  from  the  style  and  manner  of  their  writings, 
which  are  characterized  by  the  most  rigid  impartiahty  and  fide- 
lity. There  is  in  them  no  preparation  of  events ;  there  areno 
artful  transitions  or  connexions ;  no  set  characters  or  persons 
to  be  introduced;  no  reflections  on  past  transactions  or  the 
authors  of  them ;  no  excuses  or  apologies  for  what  might  pro- 
bably disturb  their  readers ;  no  specious  artifices,  no  plausible 
arguments  to  set  off  a  doubtful  action,  and  to  reconcile  it  to 
some  other,  or  to  the  character  of  the  person  who  did  it.  They 
do  not  dissemble  certain  circumstances  in  the  life  and  suffer- 
ings of  their  Master,  which  have  no  tendency  to  advance  his 
glory  in  the  eyes  of  the  world.  They  announce  the  miracles 
of  Jesus  Christ,  with  the  same  dispassionate  coolness,  as  if 
they  had  been  common  transactions,  saying  nothing  previously 
to  raise  expectation,  nor,  after  the  recital,  breaking  out  into 
exclamations. 

The  same  striking  integrity  marks  the  conduct  of  the  evan- 
gelists, when  speaking  of  their  enemies,  and  also  when  they 
are  relating  any  circumstances  respecting  themselves.  Their 
enemies  are  barely  mentioned,  without  censure  and  without 
resentment;  while  they  record  the  meanness  of  their  own 
stations,  the  inveteracy  of  their  prejudices,  the  weakness  of 
their  faith,  their  ambition,  and,  on  certain  occasions  their  secu- 
lar views. 

(5.)  They  appealed  to  miracles  and  other  notorious 
proofs,  in  such  a  manner,  that  if  they  had  conspired  to 
impose  falsehoods  upon  the  world,  they  might  have  been 
easily  detected  and  confuted.     And 

(6.)  Lastly,  they  suffered  every  thing  for  the  truth 
of  their  narration,  even  death  itself,  and  brought  many 
of  their  contemporaries,  (among  whom  were  persons  of 
eminent  rank  and  acquirements,)  to  a  conviction  of  its 
truth. 

III.  The  Credibility  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
is  further  attested  by  the  principal  facts  contained  in 
them  being  confirmed  by  certain  commemorative 
ORDINANCES,  or  monumcnts  of  great  celebrity,  that  existed 
among  Jews  and  Cliristians  from  the  very  time  when  the 
events  took  place,  which  they  are  said  to  commemorate, 
and  which  subsist  to  the  present  day  in  every  country 
where  either  Jews  or  Christians  are  to  be  found.  For 
instance, 

[L]  Among  the  Jews  there  are  the  ordinance  of  Circumci- 
sion and  the  feasts  of  the  Passover,  of  Tabernacles,  and  of 
Pentecost. 

[ii.]  In  like  manner,  among  Christians,  the  sacraments  of 
Baptism  and  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  the  festival  observed  on 
2 


14  TESTIMONIES  TO  THE  CREDIBILITY  OF 

the  first  day  of  the  week,  in  honour  of  Christ's  resurrection 
from  the  dead. 

IV.  The  wonderful  Establishment  and  Propagation 
of  Christianity  is  a  most  convincing  proof  of  the  entire 
credibility  of  the  New  Testament,  and  of  the  religion 
which  it  establishes.  It  prevails  without  the  assistance 
of  any  temporal  power,  and  it  triumphs  over  all  oppo- 
sition. 

In  considering  all  these  direct  evidences  of  the  credi- 
bility of  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament,  it  is  of  impor- 
tance to  observe,  that  there  is  no  opposite  testimony  to 
contradict  the  positive  credible  testimony  of  the  apostles, 
evangelists,  and  multitudes  of  other  persons,  to  the  history 
and  miracles  of  Jesus.  Those  persons,  therefore,  who 
reject  the  Gosple,  are  compelled  to  maintain,  in  opposition 
to  positive  credible  testimony,  that  the  most  extensive 
and  important  events  have  taken  place,  without  any  ade- 
quate cause. 


Section  H.  Testimonies  to  the  Creclfbility  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
from  Natural  and  Civil  History. 

§  1.— Testimonies  from  Natural  and  Civil  History  to  the  Credibility  of  the 
Old  Testament. 

I.  Testimonies  to  the  Mosaic  Account  of  the  Creation 
OF  THE  World. 

1.  The  Heathens  had  a  tradition  concernin?:  the  primeval 
chaos  and  the  production  of  all  tliinirs  by  tlio  Sii]»rome  Mind. 
This  npi)ii(*s  particularly  to  the  Clialdffiiin,  E?yj)tian,  PlifPiii- 
ciaii,  Ilmdoo,  Chmese,  Etruscan,  Gothic,  Greek,  and  American 
Cosrnojroiiies. 

2.  The  division  of  time  into  weeks  has  prevailed  amonir  the 
Hebrews,  Egyptians,  Chinese,  Greeks,  Komans,  and  northern 
barbarians. 

3.  Even  ilie  Mosaic  method  of  rcckonins:  by  nights^  instead 
ofdayn,  lias  prevailed  in  more  than  one  nation. 

II.  The  Formation  o/Man  in  the  Moral  image  of 
God  and  his  State  in  Paradise. 

Tiiese  were  the  ori;?in  of  the  fabled  golden  ape,  which  is 
described  by  the  poets  ;  and  may  also  bedislinctly  Iracrd  in  the 
legends  of  our  Scythian  forefathers,  and  in  the  age  of  perfec- 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  J  5 

tion  of  the  Hindoos.  In  the  classical  story  of  the  garden  of 
the  Hesperides,  we  may  equally  discover  a  tradition  of  the 
Mosaical  Paradise,  and  of  the  promised  Saviour  who  should 
bruise  the  head  of  the  infernal  dragon. 

III.  The  Fall  of  Man  and  the  Introduction  of  Sin  into 
the  World. 

The  Mosaic  Narrative  of  these  events  agrees  in  the  most 
striking  manner,  both  with  the  obvious  facts  of  labour,  sorrow, 
pain  and  death.  Whatever  some  may  assert  to  the  contrary, 
and  however  they  may  attempt  to  explain  away  that  narrative, 
or  attempt  to  prove  it  false;  yet  the  evidently  ruined  condi- 
tion of  the  human  race  would  still  remain  as  an  undeniable  fact ; 
and  the  Mosaic  Account  of  the  Fall  is  confirmed  by  various 
historical  traditions.    Thus, 

1.  From  the  Fall  of  the  Angels,  in  all  probability,  originated 
the  Tr.idition  of  the  Titans,  aiid  giants  invading  heaven. 

2.  Ttie  Disobedience  of  Eve  is  plainly  alluded  to  in  the  le- 
gend of  Pandora. 

3.  The  Corruption  and  Depravation  of  Human  Nature  are 
frequent  subjects  of  complaint  among  the  ancient  heathen 
moralists,  philosophers  and  poets. 

4.  The  form,  assumed  by  the  Tempter,  has  been  handed 
down  in  the  traditions  of  the  most  ancient  nations,  particularly 
the  Persians,  Hindoos,  Greeks,  Egyptians  and  Scythians,  or 
Goths. 

5.  A  conviction  of  the  necessity  of  an  Atonement  for  sin  has 
universally  prevailed,  together  with  the  practice  of  devoting 
piacular  victims. 

IV.  The  Translation  0/ Enoch 

May  be  traced  in  the  Grecian  fables  of  the  translation  of  their 
heroes  and  demi-gods,  particularly  of  Hesperus  and  Astraea  ; 
and  in  the  translation  of  Dhruva  among  the  Hindoos;  of 
Buddha  among  the  Ceylonese,  and  of  Xaca,  among  the  Cal- 
mucks  of  Siberia. 

V.  The  Longevity  of  the  Antideluvians 

Is  confirmed  by  various  heathen  writers,  mentioned  by  Jose- 
phus:  (Ant.  Jud.  Ub.  i.  c.  3,)  and  the  Mosaic  account  of  Men 
of  a  Gigantic  Stature  is  confirmed  by  the  Greek  and  Roman 
poets  and  historians,  particularly  Pausanias,  Philostratus,  and 
Pliny. 

VI.  The  Fact  of  the  Deluge  is  most  completely  at' 
tested  both  by  Natural  and  Civil  History. 

1.   Testimonies  from  Natural  History. 

The  Mosaic  narrative  of  the  Deluge  is  confirmed  by  the  fos- 


IQ  TESTIMONIES  TO  THE  CREDIBILITY  OF 

silised  remains  of  animals  belonging-  to  a  former  world,  which 
ariB  found  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  frequently  on  the  sum- 
mits of  the  most  lofty  mountains :  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  the  remains  of  animals,  belonging  to  one  part  of  the  globe, 
are  often  found  in  another  part  very  distant.  Further,  the 
deep  southern  indentations  on  the  different  continents  of  the 
terraqueous  globe,  and  the  bold  projecting  capes  on  the  north, 
corroborate  the  account  of  the  ark  drifting  northwards. 

2.    Testimonies  from  Civil  History. 

[i.]  The  paucity  of  mankind,  and  the  vast  tracts  of 
uninhabited  land,  mentioned  in  the  accounts  of  the  first 
ages. 

[ii.]  The  late  invention  and  progress  of  arts  and  sci- 
ences» 

The  fabulous  nature  of  early  histor>'  shows  how  little  credit 
is  due  to  the  pretences  to  antiquity,  made  by  the  several  na- 
tions among  the  heathens: — pretences,  which  have  no  support 
whatever  from  authentic  history,  but  are  grounded  only  on  the 
uncertain  calculations  of  astronomy,  in  which  science  they  ac- 
tually had  but  little  or  no  skill. 

[iii.]  The  universal  tradition  of  this  event,  which  has 
obtained  among  mankind  in  all  ages. 

The  Chaldaeans,  Phoenicians,  Assyrians,  Greeks,  Romans, 
Goths,  and  Druids,  the  Persians,  Hindoos,  Burmese,  Chinese, 
Mexicans,  Peruvians,  Brazilians,  Nicaraguans,  the  inhabitants 
of  Western  Caledonia,  the  Otaheitans,  and  Sandwich  Island- 
ers, all  bear  testimony  to  this  fact.  The  deluge  is  also  men- 
tioned by  Berosus,  Hieronymus  the  Egyptian,  and  Nicolaus 
of  Damascus,  according  to  Josephus ;  and  by  Alexander  Poly- 
histor,  Plato,  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  Lucian.  It  is  most  evi- 
dently alluded  to  in  Ovid's  description  of  Deucalion's  flood, 
and  Plutarch  relates  the  same  particulars  of  a  dove  sent  out 
bv  Deucalion,  as  Moses  records  of  the  dove  sent  out  by 
Noali. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  testimonies,  the  Mosaic  nar- 
rative of  the  deluge  has  been  objected  to,  as  an  improba- 
ble event,  contrary  to  matter  of  fact. 

Objection  1. —  The  Ark  could  not  contain  all  the  atn- 
mals  which  arc  said  to  have  entered  it. 

Answer.— The  contrary  hasborn  satisfactorily  demonstrated. 
Reckoning  the  cubit  at  eighteen  inches,  Dr.  Hales  has  proved 
that  the  Ark  was  of  the  burden  of  42,413  tons.  (Analysis 
of  Chronology,  vol.  L  p.  328.)     Larger  calculations  bav© 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  |7 

been  made,  but  the  preceding  is  abundantly  sufficient  for  our 
purpose. 

Obj.  2. — As  the  same  causes  produce  the  same  effects^ 
the  Rainbow  must  have  existed  before  the  flood. 

Answer.— So  it  may,  but  not  as  a  sign  of  tbe  Covenant. 
The  Hebrew  word,  which  in  Gen.  ix,  13,  is  rendered  set^ 
ought  to  be  rendered  appoint;  in  which  case  the  passage  would 
run  thus :— "  I  do  appoint  my  bow  in  the  cloud  to  be  a  sign  or 
token  of  the  covenant  between  me  and  the  earth." 

Obj.  3. — If  all  mankind  sprang  from  one  white  pair^ 
(Noah  and  his  tcife,)  it  is  impossible  to  account  for  the 
origin  of  the  blacks. 

Answer.— This  difference  of  colour  does  not  invalidate  the 
Mosaic  Narrative :  for  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  influ- 
ence of  climate,  and  the  local  circumstances  of  air,  water,  food, 
customs,  &c.  are  abundantly  sufficient  to  account  for  the  dis- 
similarity in  the  appearance  of  diiferent  nations. 

Obj.  4. —  The  peopling  of  America  and  of  several 
islands,  in  lohich  mischievous  terrestrial  animals  have  been 
founds  has  also  been  urged  as  an  objection  to  the  univer- 
sality of  the  deluge. 

Answer.— The  straits  that  divide  North  America  from  Tar- 
tary  are  so  narrow,  as  to  admit  of  a  very  easy  passage  from 
one  continent  to  the  other :  and  the  resemblance  found  between 
the  inhabitants  of  the  opposite  sides  of  that  passage,  and  their 
uncivilised  state  and  rude  io-norance  of  the  arts,  pl-ove  them  to 
have  had  one  common  origin. 

VII.  The  Building  of  the  Tower  o/ Babel 

Is  circumstantially  mentioned  by  Berosus,  a  Chaldasan  his- 
torian :  according  to  Josephus,  it  is  mentioned  by  Hestia^us 
and  one  of  the  ancient  Sybils ;  and,  as  Eusebius  informs  us, 
by  Abydenus  and  Eupolemus.  That  it  was  constructed  with 
burnt  bricks  and  bitumen,  is  attested  by  Justin,  QuiiUus  Cur- 
tius,  and  Vitruvius,  and  also  by  the  relations  of  modern  travel- 
lers. 

VIII.  The  History  of  the  Destruction  of  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah 

Is  attested  by  Diodorus  Siculus,  Strabo,  Solinus,  Tacitus,  Pliny, 
and  Josephus,  whose  accounts  mainly  agree  with  the  Mosaic 
Narrative:  and  their  reports  concerning  the  physical  appear- 
ance of  the  Dead  Sea  are  confirmed,  in  all  material  points^  by 
the  relations  of  all  modern  travellers. 
2* 


13  TESTIMONIES  TO  TIIE  GREDIBIIITY  OF 

IX.  Ancient  historians,  cited  by  Josephus  and  Euse- 
bins,  make  mention  of  Abraham^  Isaac,  and  Jacob. 

X.  The  Departure  of  the  Children  of  Israel  from 
Egypt,  and  their  miraculous  passage  of  the  Red  Sea, 

Are  attested  by  Berosus,  Artapanus,  Strabo,  Diodorus  Siculiis^ 
Numenius,  Justin,  and  Tacitus. 

XL  The  Heathen  Writers  borrowed  images  from 
the  accounts  communicated  in  the  Scriptures. 

Such  are  the  representations  of  their  deities  being  veiled  in 
clouds,  &c.;  together  with  several  religious  institutions,  and 
other  particulars. 

XII.  Many  other  occurrences  related  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament appear  to  have  given  rise  to  various  stories  among 
the  ancients 

Thus,  the  Story  of  Iphigenia  being  sacrificed  by  her  father 
Agamemnon,  was  borrowed  from  tlie  circumstance  of  Jei^h- 
ihah's  devoting  his  daughter.  The  story  of  Scylla  having  cut 
off  the  purple  lock  of  her  father,  Nisus,  and  given  it  to  his 
enemy,  Minos,  was  in  all  probability  taken  froiii  the  history  of 
Sampson's  being  shaved.  Herodotus  relates  the  departure  of 
the  sun  from  its  course  four  times,  which  seems  to  refer  to  the 
times  of  Joshua  and  Hezekia.  Numerous  other  instances 
occur,  in  which  scripture  characters  and  events  are  mentioned 
by  heathen  writers. 

XIII.  Lastly,  the  Fertility  of  the  Soil  of  Palestine 

Is  confirmed  by  the  unanimous  testimony  of  ancient  writers, 
as  well  as  of  most,  if  not  all  tlie  travellers  who  have  visited 
that  country:  and,  if  Palestine  were  as  well  inhabitrxl  and  ;is 
well  cultivated  as  formerly,  its  produce  unquestionably  would 
exceed  all  calculation. 

Besides  the  attestations  from  natural  and  profane  liis- 
tory,  we  may  consider  the  Jews  themselves  as  bearingr 
testimony,  to  this  day,  in  all  countries  of  the  world,  to  the 
truth  of  their  ancient  history,  tliat  is,  to  the  truth  of  the 
Old  Testament.  Allow  this,  and  it  will  be  easy  to  see, 
why  they  still  persist  in  their  attachment  to  that  religion, 
those  laws,  and  those  predictions,  which  so  manifestly 
condemn  them,  both  in  past  times  and  in  the  present. 
Suppose,  however,  that  any  considerable  alterations  have 
been  made  in  their  ancient  history,  that  is,  any  such 
alteration  as  may  answer  their  purposes  of  infidelity,  and 
theii*  present  state  will  be  incxidicalU. 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  ^g 

i  2. — Testimonies  of  Profane  Writers  to  the  Credibility  Of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

I.  TestimoTiies  of  Jewish  and  Pagan  Authors  to  the  Ac- 
counts of  Princes  and  Governors  mentioned  in  the  New 

Testament. 

Thus,  Josephus,  the  Jewish  historian,  and  various  ancient 
writers,  mention  Herod,  Archelaus,  Pontius  Pilate,  and  other 
persons,  whose  names  occur  in  the  New  Testament ;  and  they 
differ  but  httle  from  the  Evangehcal  Historians,  concerning 
their  offices  and  characters. 

II.  The  Evangelical  Writers  agree  with  Josephus,  and 
with  profane  Authors  respecting  the  Sects,  Morals,  and 
CUSTOMS  of  the  Jews. 

ni.  The  Characters  GTz^  Pursuits  o/JZea^^eTi  Nations, 
for  instance,  the  Cretans,  Athenians,  &c.  which  are  occa- 
sionally introduced  in  the  New  Testament,  are  corroborated 
by  the  testimonies  of  profane  writers. 

IV.  Testimonies  of  Jewish  Adversaries  to  the  Name 
and  Faith  of  Christ. 

1.  Josephus  bears  testimony  to  the  character,  miracles,  and 
doctrines  of  Jesus  Christ,  in  the  eighteenth  book  of  his  Jewish 
Antiquities,  Chap.  iii.  Sect.  3,  whicli  passage,  though  rejected 
by  some  writers  as  spurious,  has  been  satisfactorily  demon- 
strated to  be  genuine. 

2.  The  Talmuds,  or  Books  containing  the  Jewish  Traditions, 
the  rabbinical  constitutions,  and  explications  of  the  law,  though 
blended  with  falsehood,  refer  to  the  nativity  of  Jesus  Christ ; 
they  relate  his  journey  into  Egypt ;  and  do  not  deny  that  he 
performed  numerous  eminent  miracles. 

V.  Testimonies  o/ Heathen  Adversaries  to  the  Chris- 
tia7i  Name  and  faith. 

1.  Mention  is  made  of  the  Life  and  Character  of  Jesus 
Christ  in  the  Acta  Pilati,  (which  were  an  account  sent  by  Pi- 
late to  Rome  of  the  transactions  that  occurred  in  his  province, 
and  to  which  the  Christian  writers,  Justin  and  Tertuhian,  ap- 
pealed in  their  apologies  ;)  and  also  in  the  writinsrs  of  the  hea- 
then historians,  Suetonius,  Tacitus,  Pliny,  and  iElius  Lampri- 
dius.  And  Celsus,  Porphyry,  and  Julian,  who  were  the  earliest 
learned  opposers  of  the  Christian  Religion,  bear  evidence  to  the 
genuineness  of  the  books  received  b^'  Christians,  and  conse- 
quently to  the  truth  of  the  history  of  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Jesus  Christ. 

2.  To  the  Innocency  of  Life,  and  constancy  of  the  first 
Christians  in  the  profession  of  their  faith,  exphcit  testimony  is 
borne,  during  the  Neronian  persecution  (A.  D.  95,)  by  Tacitus 
Suetonius,  Martial,  and  Juvenal :  and  the  celebrated  epistle  of 
the  Younger  Pliny,  which  was  written  to  the  emperor  Trajan, 


20  TESTIMONIES  TO  THE  CREDIBILITY  OF 

A.  D.  107,  together  with  that  emperor's  reply  or  rescript,  are 
valuable  documents,  corroborating  the  truth  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, inasmuch  as  they  attest 

(1.)  The  great  progress  made  by  the  Christian  Religion  in  a 
short  space  of  time. 

(2.)  The  fortitude  of  the  Christians  in  suffering,  and  their 
steady  perseverance  in  the  faith  of  Jesus  Christ. 

(3.)  That  they  disowned  all  the  Gods  of  the  Heathens,  paid 
divine  worship  to  their  God  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  and  de- 
voted themselves  to  the  practice  of  moral  virtue. 

(4.)  The  iimocent  and  virtuous  lives  of  the  first  Christians^ 
whose  religion  was  their  only  crime. 

Further,'Celsus  ridicules  the  Christians  for  their  worship  of 
Christ,  and  attests  the  gradual  increase  of  their  numbers.  He 
also  acknowledges  that  there  were  modest,  temperate,  and  in- 
telligent persons  among  them  ;  and  bears  witness  to  their  faith 
in  Christ.  Lucian  also,  another  bitter  enemy  of  the  Christian 
Faith,  has  borne  testimony  to  its  principal  facts  and  doctrines, 
as  \vell  as  to  the  upright  character  of  the  Cliristians  :  and  their 
fortitude  and  constancy  under  persecution  are  referred  to  by 
the  philosopher  Kpicteius  (A.D.  109,)  the  emperor  Marcus  An- 
toninus (A.D.  161.)  and  by  GaFen.  (A.D.  200.)  Porphyry  also, 
(A.D.  270,)  and  the  emi)eror  Julian  (A.D.  361,)  have  both  at- 
tested the  truth  of  many  facts  and  things  related  in  the  New 
Testament. 

VI.  Refutation  of  the  Objection  to  the  Credibility  of 
the  Scripture  History,  which  has  been  raised,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  silence  of  profane  historians  to  the  facts 
therein  recorded. 

That  silence  may  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for.  by  their 
great  ignoran(;e  of  facts  which  occurred  very  long  before  their 
own  time,  and  by  the  peculiar  contempt  which  several  of  them 
entertained  both  for  Jews  and  Christians,  arising  from  the  di- 
versity of  tlieir  customs  and  institutions.  To  these  considera- 
tions we  may  add — 

1.  Tliat  many  books  of  those  remote  ages  are  lost,  in  wliich 
it  is  very  possible  that  some  mention  might  have  been  made  of 
these  facts. 

2.  Some  of  the  Roman  Historians,  whose  works  have  come 
down  to  our  time,  are  defective. 

3.  That  of  the  few  remaining  historians,  who  wrote  about 
the  ages  in  (juestion,  most  were  euL'-agcd  ujion  otlu  r  suitjrcfs. 
Besides,  no  profane  historians,  whether  Jews  or  Gentiles,  lake 
notice  of  «//  occurrences. 

4.  That  several  of  the  facts  relating  to  Christ  and  liis  mira- 
cles, cominir  from  Jews,  would  be  sliirhted  as  fabulous  by  the 
Gentile  writers,  es|)('cially  considerinn,  on  the  one  liand,  how 
common  prodigies  and  magical  stories  were ;  and,  on  the  other, 
how  superstitious  and  credulous  the  Jews  were  reputed  to  be ; 
and 

5.  That  the  first  appearance  of  the  Christian  scheme  would 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  21 

shock  them,  as  seeming  so  improbable,  and  so  contrary  to  their 
received  maxims,  that  it  cannot  excite  surprise,  that  many  of 
them  cared  but  little  to  inquire  into  the  evidences  and  facts  re- 
lating to  Christianity.  Many,  however,  who  did  inquire,  doubt- 
less became  Christians ;  their  testimony  therefore  is  not  to  be 
reckoned  in  this  place. 


§  3.— Collateral  Testimonies  to  the  Truth  of  the  Facts  recorded  in  the 
Scriptures,  from  ancient  Coins,  Medals,  and  Marbles. 

These  are  confessedly  among  the  most  important  proofs 
of  ancient  history  in  general ;  and  the  confirmation  which 
they  afford  of  man}^  particulars  recorded  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, is  not  less  important  and  decisive  than  the  series  of 
evidence,  furnished  by  profane  historians  in  the  preceding 
sections.     Thus. 

1.   The  Mosaic  Narrative  of  the  Deluge 

Is  confirmed  by  a  coin,  struck  at  Apamea  in  the  reign  of  Philip 
the  elder ;  which  commemorates  the  sending  forth  of  the  dove 
by  Noah.  (Gen.  viii.  7—11.)  On  one  of  the  front  pannels  of 
the  chest  or  ark,  which  is  represented  on  the  reverse  of  this 
medal,  is  the  word  NOE  in  ancient  Greek  characters. 

II.  The  account  of  Pharaoh-Necho's  war  against 
the  Jews  and  Babylonians,  which  is  related  in  2  Chron. 
XXXV.  20 — 24,  and  xxxvi.  1 — 4, 

Is  confirmed  by  Herodotus,  (Hist.  lib.  ii.  c.  159,)  and  especially 
by  the  discoveries  of  the  late  Mr.  Belzoni,  in  the  tombs  of  the 
Egyptian  sovereigns.  (See  his  Narrative  of  Operations  in 
Egypt,  &c.  pp.  242,  243.  4to.  edit-  and  Nos.  4,  5,  and  6,  of  his 
foTio  Atlas  of  Plates.) 

III.  The  Invasion  of  the  Kingdom  of  Israel,  by  Shal- 
maneser,  King  of  Assyria,  and  the  carrying  of  the  ten 
tribes  into  captivity,  which  are  narrated  in  2  Kings,  xvii. 
6,  and  xviii.  10, 

Are  confirmed  by  certain  ancient  sculptures  on  the  mountains 
of  Be-Sitoon,  near  the  borders  of  the  ancient  Assyria,  which 
are  described  in  Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter's  Travels  in  Georgia, 
Persia,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  154—162. 

IV.  Acts  xiii.  7,  is  confirmed  by  a  coin,  proving  that 
the  island  of  Cyprus  was  at  that  time  under  the  govern- 
ment  of  a  proconsul. 


22  TESTIMONIES  TO  THE  CREDIBILITY  OF 

On  this  coin  the  same  title  ANGYn  ATOE,  or  Deputy,  is  given 
to  Proclus,  which  St.  Paul  gave  to  his  predecessor,  Sergius 
Paulus. 

V.  In  Acts  xvi.    11,   12,  the  evangelist  LuJce  sai/&^ 

"  We  came to  PhUippi,  ivhich  is  the  chief  city 

of  that  part  of  Macedonia^  and  a  colony.'''' — Th'is  pas- 
sage may  more  correctly  he  rendered — "  Philippic  a 
city  of  the  first  part  of  Macedojiia^  or  of  Macedonia 
Prima:' 

The  province  of  Macedonia  had  undergone  various  changes, 
and  had  been  divided  into  various  portions,  particularly  nito 
four,  while  under  the  Roman  government.  Many  medalt;  of 
the  first  province,  or  Macedonia  Prima,  are  extant,  with  the 
inscription  MAKEA0]NS2N  nPQTHJ:,  or  the">rs/  part  ofj\Ja- 
cedonia^"  which  confirm  the  accuracy  of  Luke,  and  sliow  iiis 
attention  to  the  minutest  particulars.  Further,  by  using  the 
term  KOA12N1A,  (which  was  originally  a  Latin  word.  Colonial) 
histead  of  the  corresponding  Greek  word  ImoiKia^  the  historian 
plainly  intimates  that  it  was  a  Roman  colony,  which  the  twenty- 
first  verse  certainly  proves  it  to  have  been.  Now,  among  some 
coins  that  have  been  discovered,  in  which  it  is  recorded  under 
this  character,  there  is  one  in  particular,  which  explicitly  stales 
that  .Julius  Caesar  himself  bestowed  the  privileges  of  a  Roman 
colony  on  the  city  of  Phihppi,  which  were  afterwards  confirmed 
by  Augustus. 

VI.  In  Acts  xvi.  14,  we  read  that  Lydia^  a  dealer  in 
purple^  from  Thyatira^  had  settled  at  Philippi, 

Now,  among  the  ruins  of  Thyatira,  there  is  an  inscription 
extant  with  the  words  UI  BA<I>Eli:(Mff//^rs;)  whence  we  learn 
that  the  art  and  trade  of  dying  purple  were  carried  on  in  that 
city. 

VI  f.  In  Acts  xvii.  23,  Paid  relates  his  having  found 
an  altar  at  Athens,  with  the  inscription  ArJXi2i;Ti2  0Ei2, 
TO  the  unknown  god. 

We  know  from  the  testimony  of  Lucian,  that  there  was  such 
an  inscrii)tion:  and  the  occasion  of  this  altar  being  erected,  in 
common  with  many  others  bearimr  the  same  inscription,  is 
related  at  length  by  Diogenes  Laeriius  (in  Epimenide,  hb.  i.  c. 
X.  §  3.) 

VIIL  In  Acts  xix.  35,  the  word  NEQKOPON  (in 
the  English  version  rendered  a  worshipper)  is  very  em- 
phatic. 

It  properly  signifies  a  person  dedicated  to  the  service  of  some 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  23 

god  or  goddess,  whose  peculiar  office  it  was  to  attend  the  tem- 
ple, and  see  that  it  was  kept  clean.  At  length  the  NEfiK  OPOI 
became  persons  of  great  consequence,  and  were  those  who  of- 
fered sacrifices  for  the  life  of  the  emperor.  Whole  cities  took 
this  appellation,  as  appears  on  many  ancient  coins  and  medals. 
Ephesus  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  which  assumed  this 
title ;  and  there  is  a  medal  extant,  in  which  it  is  given  to  that 
city. 

IX.  The  Triumphal  Arch  erected  at  Rome  in  honour 
of  Titus,  (whereon  are  represented  certain  vessels  used 
by  the  Jews  in  their  religious  worship,  agreeably  to  the 
statements  in  the  Old  Testament,*)  is  an  evidence  to  the 
truth  of  the  historic  accounts,  which  describe  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Jewish  State  and  Government,  and  relate  the 
conquest  of  Jerusalem. 

Further,  there  are  extant  numerous  medals  of  Judaea 
vanquished,  struck  by  order  of  the  Roman  general  Titus, 
(who  was  afterwards  emperor,)  in  order  to  commemorate 
the  conquest  of  Judaea  and  the  subversion  of  the  Jewish 
state  and  polity. 

The  following  representation  of  the  reverse  of  one  of 
these  is  given  from  the  original  very  rare  coin,  preserved 
in  the  cabinet  of  the  British  Museum. 


It  represents  the  conquered  country  as  a  desolate  female 
sitting  under  a  tree,  and  affords  an  extraordinary  fulfilment 
of  Isaiah's  prediction  (iii.  26.  She  being  desolate  shall 
SIT  upon  the  ground,)  delivered  at  least  eight  hundred 
years  before,  as  well  as  a  striking  illustration  of  the  La- 
mentations of  Jeremiah  (ch.  i.  ver.  1.)  How  doth  the 
city  SIT  solitary,  that  was  full  of  people  !     How  is  she 

*  The  vignettes,  glveo  in  the  subsequent  part  of  this  volume,  are  copied 
from  this  arch. 


24 


DIVINE  ALTHORITV  OF 


become  as  a  widow !  she  that  icas  great  among  the 
nations,  princess  among  the  provinces^  how  is  she  be- 
come tributary! 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ALL  THE  BOOKS  OP  THE  OLD  AND  NKW  TESTAMENTS   ARK   OP  DIVINH    AUTHORITY, 
AND  THEIR  AUTHORS  ARE  DIVINELY  INSPIRED. 

Section  I. — Preliminary  Observations. 

I.  Inspiration  defined. 

It  is  the  imparting  of  sucli  a  degree  of  divine  influence, 
assistance,  or  guidance,  as  enabled  the  autliors  of  the  seve- 
ral Books  of  Scripture  to  communicate  religious  knowledge 
to  others,  without  error  or  mistake. 

II.  Such  Inspiration  is  both  reasonable  and  neces- 
sary. 

1.  It  is  reasonable  that  the  sentiments  and  doctrines, 
delivered  in  the  scriptures,  should  be  suggested  to  the 
minds  of  the  writers  by  the  Supreme  Being  himself;  since 
they  relate  to  matters,  concerning  which  the  communica- 
tion of  information  to  men  is  worthy  of  God. 

2.  Further,  Inspiration  is  necessary ;  for, 

(1.)  Some  past  facts  are  related  in  the  Bible,  which  could  not 
possibly  have  been  known,  had  not  God  revealed  them. 

(2.)  Some  events  are  predicted,  which  God  alone  could  fore- 
know. 

(3.)  Other  things  also  are  contained  in  the  Scriptures  which 
are  far  above  the  capacity  of  man. 

(4.)  The  autlioritalive  language  of  Scrijjture  argues  the  ne- 
cessity of  inspiration,  admitting  the  veracity  of  the  writers. 
They  do  not  present  us  with  their  own  thoughts,  but  exclaim, 
"  Thus  saith  the  Lord  i''  and  on  that  ground  they  demand  our 
assent. 

III.  The  Scriptures  could  not  have  been  the  invention 
of  men.  Wicked  men  loould  not  have  produced  books 
which  condemn  every  thing  that  is  unholy,  even  if  they 
were  capable  of  doing  so  ;  and  good  men  could  not  de- 
ceive. 

IV.  Criteria  of  Inspiration. 

These  are  twofold,  viz.  Miracles  and  Prophecy. 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  25 

To  these  may  be  added  other  internal  evidences  for 
the  divine  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures  ;  viz. 

The  sublime  doctrines  and  precepts  which  they  con- 
tain; 

The  harmony  and  connexion  subsisting  between  their 
various  parts ; 

The  miraculous  preservation  of  the  Scriptures;  and 

Their  tendency  to  promote  the  present  and  eternal 
happiness  of  mankind,  as  evinced  by  the  blessed  effects 
which  are  invariably  produced  by  a  cordial  belief  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Bible. 


Section  II. — The  Miracles,  related  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  are 
Proofs,  that  the  Scriptures  were  given  by  Inapiration  of  God. 

I.  A  Miracle  defined. 

A  Miracle  is  an  effect  or  event,  contrary  to  the  esta- 
blished constitution  or  course  of  things  ;  or,  a  sensible  sus- 
pension or  controlment  of,  or  deviation  from,  the  known 
laws  of  nature,  wrought  either  by  the  immediate  act,  or 
by  the  assistance  or  by  the  permission  of  God,  and  ac- 
companied with  a  previous  notice  or  declaration  that  it  is 
performed  according  to  the  purpose  and  power  of  God, 
for  the  proof  or  evidence  of  some  particular  doctrine,  or 
in  attestation  of  the  authority  or  divine  mission  of  some 
particular  person. 

Nature  is  the  assemblage  of  created  beings :  these  beings  act 
upon  each  other,  or  by  each  other,  agreeably  to  certain  laws, 
the  result  of  which  is,  what  we  call  the  course  or  order  of  na- 
ture. These  laws  are  invariable :  it  is  by  them  God  governs  the 
world.  He  alone  established  them  ;  He  alone  therefore  can 
suspend  them.  Effects,  which  are  produced  by  the  regular 
operation  of  these  laws,  or  which  are  conformable  to  the^esta- 
bhshed  course  of  events,  are  said  to  be  natural;  and  every 
palpable  deviation  from  the  constitution  of  the  natural  system, 
and  the  correspondent  course  of  events  in  that  system,  is  called 
a  miracle. 

II.  Nature  of  the  evidence  arising  from  Miracles. 
Objection. — Miracles  are  beyond  comprehension,  and 

therefore  are  contrary  to  reason. 

ANswER.—This  is  by  no  means  the  case:  for  the  possibiHty 
of  miracles  is  not  contrary  to  reason.    Every  thing  we  see,  in- 
deed, is  in  one  sense  a  miracle.    How  many  of  the  most  cona- 
3 


2g  DIVINE  AUTHORITY  OF 

mon  phenomena  m  nature  are  beyond  our  comprehension! 
And  yet,  notwithstanding  we  cannot  comprehend  or  solve  the 
most  common  of  these  phenomena,  they  make  no  impression 
on  us,  because  they  are  common,  because  they  happen  accord- 
ing to  a  stated  course,  and  are  seen  every  day.  If  they  were 
out  of  the  common  course  of  nature,  though  in  themselves  not 
more  difficult  to  comprehend,  they  would  still  appear  more 
"Wonderful  to  us,  and  more  immediately  the  work  of  God. 
Thus,  when  we  see  a  child  grow  into  a  man,  and,  when  the 
breath  has  left  the  body,  turn  to  corruption,  we  are  not  in  the 
least  surprised,  because  we  see  it  every  day :  but  were  we  to 
see  a  man  restored  from  sickness  to  health  by  a  word,  or  raised 
to  life  from  the  dead  by  a  mere  command,  though  these  things 
are  not  really  more  unaccountable,  yet  we  call  the  uncommon 
event  a  miracle,  merely  because  it  is  uncommon.  We  acknow- 
ledge, however,  that  both  are  produced  by  God,  because  it  is 
evident  that  no  other  power  can  produce  them. 

Such,  then,  is  the  nature  of  the  evidence  which  arises 
from  miracles :  and  we  have  no  more  reason  to  disbe- 
lieve them,  when  well  attested,  and  not  repugnant  to  the 
goodness  or  justice  of  God,  only  because  they  were  per- 
formed several  ages  ago,  than  we  have  to  disbelieve  tiie 
more  ordinary  occurrences  of  Providence  which  passed 
before  our  own  time,  because  the  same  occurrences  may 
never  happen  again  during  our  lives.  The  ordinary 
course  of  nature  proves  the  being  and  providence  of  God; 
these  extraordinary  acts  of  power  prove  the  divine  com- 
mission of  that  person  who  performs  them. 

III.  Design  of  Miracles. 

Tliis  is,  not  to  prove  the  great  doctrines  and  duties  of  na- 
tural religion,  but  to  prove  new  revealed  doctrines,  whici) 
neither  were  nor  could  be  known  to  the  reason  of  man 
Consequently,  believers  in  the  Bible  do  not  argue  in  a  cir- 
cle (as  some  modern  objectors  have  asserted,)  proving  the 
doctrines  first  by  the  miracles,  and  tlien  tiie  miracles  by 
the  doctrines  :  because  the  doctrines  wliicli  \\\ey  prove  by 
miracles,  and  the  doctrines  by  which  they  try  them,  are 
not  the  same  doctrines. 

No  miracles  are  related  in  the  Scriptures  to  have  been 
wrought  in  confirmation  of  falsehoods  ;  yet  this  lias  been 
objected  in  the  cases  of  the  Egyptian  Magicians,  the  Witch 
of  Endor,  and  Satan  in  the  time  of  Ciirisi\s  temptation. 
But  this  objection  is  utterly  destitute  of  foundation  :  for, 

1,  The  Magicians  did  not  perform  any  miracle.  All  they 
did,— as  the  narrative  of  Moses  exj^rcssly  states,— was  to  busy 


OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT  27 

themselves  in  tlieir  enchantments ;  by  which,  every  man  knows, 
miracles  cannot  be  accomplished. 

2.  The  Witch  of  Endor  neither  wrought  nor  expected  to 
work  any  miracle,  being  herself  terrified  at  the  appearance  of 
Samuel,  who  was  sent  by  God  himself. 

3.  There  was  nothing  miraculous  in  Satan's  leading  Christ, 
by  his  free  consent,  to  a  lofty  mountain,  whence  he  could  dis- 
cover,—not  all  the  world,  but  all  the  four  tetrarchies  or  king- 
doms of  o/\oufx£vy)j,  that  is,  the  land  of  Judaea. 

The  proper  effect  of  miracles  is,  to  mark  clearly  the 
divine  interposition;  and  the  Scriptures  intimate  this  to 
be  their  design;  for  both  Moses  and  the  Prophets,  and  Je- 
sus Christ  and  his  Apostles,  appealed  to  them,  in  proof  of 
their  divine  mission. 

IV.  Credibility  of  Miracles  vinc^icated  and  proved. 

Whatever  miracles  are  wrought,  they  arc  matters  of 
fact^  and  capable  of  being  proved  by  proper  evidence,  as 
other  historical  facts  are.  The  witnesses,  however,  must 
be  supposed  to  be  acquainted  with  the  course  of  nature  so 
as  to  be  able  to  judge  that  the  event  in  question  was  con- 
trary to  it;  for  an  event  is  not  miraculous  merely  because 
it  is  to  us  strange  or  unaccountable,  but  because  it  is  con- 
trary to  the  known  course  of  nature.  To  those  who  be- 
held the  miracles  of  Moses  and  Jesus  Christ,  the  seeing 
of  those  miracles  was  sufficient  evidence  of  their  divine 
inspiration.  But  to  other  men,  miracles,  like  other 
events,  admit  of  the  evidence  of  testimony  :  the  cre- 
dibility of  the  witnesses  therefore  is  the  only  point  now  to 
be  considered. 

Hints  for  estimating  the  value  of  human  testimony. 

1.  Any  thing  capable  of  being  proved  by  mere  testimony  is 
credible,  in  proportion  to  the  opportunity  which  the  witness 
had  of  being  well  informed  concerning  it  himself,  and  his  free- 
dom from  any  bias  which  might  make  him  wish  to  impose 
upon  others. 

If  the  person,  who  gives  us  information  of  any  fact,  appears  to  be  a 
competent  judge  of  it, — and  to  have  been  in  a  situation  in  which  he  had 
the  best  opportunity  of  being  rightly  informed,  and  if  there  be  no  ap- 
pearance of  its  being  his  interest  to  deceive  us,  we  give  our  assent, — but 
we  hesitate  in  proportion  to  the  doubts  we  emertain  on  either  of  these 
heads. 

2.  The  more  persons  there  are,  who  relate  the  same  transac- 
tion of  which  they  are  equally  credible  witnesses,  the  stronger 
is  the  evidence  for  it.  But  the  more  persons  there  are, 
through  whose  hands  the  sartie  narration  is  conveyed  to  us^ 
the  weaker  is  the  evidence. 


28  DIVINE  AUTHORITY  OF 

In  the  latter  cstse  the  witnesses  are  called  dependent  ones ;  bat  in  the 
former  they  are  said  to  be  independent.  Whatever  imperfection  there 
may  be  in  any  one  of  a  number  of  independent  witnesses,  it  is  in  part  re- 
moved by  the  testimony  of  others :  but  every  imperfection  increases  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  dependent  witnesses,  tlrrough  whose  heinds 
the  story  is  transmitted. 

3.  The  proper  mark  or  criterion  of  a  story  being  related  by 
a  number  of  independent  witnesses,  of  full  credit,  is  their  com- 
plete agreement  in  the  principal  arguments,  and  their  disa- 
ereement  with  respect  to  things  of  less  consequence,  or,  at 
least,  variety  or  diversity,  in  their  manner  of  relating  the  same 
story. 

4.  We  likewise  distinguish  respecting  the  nature  of  the  fact 
to  which  our  assent  is  required.  Miracles  require  stronger 
testimony  than  common  facts ;  and  such  testimony  they  really 
have. 

The  greater  part  of  our  knowledge  has  no  other  foundation  than  testi- 
mony. Yet  has  it  been  laid  down  as  a  maxim,  that  no  human  testimony 
is  sufficient  to  establish  the  truth  of  a  miracle.  This  assertion  was  first 
made  by  the  ablest  and  acutest  of  the  deistical  philosophers,  and  it  has 
commonly  been  accounted  the  strong  hold  of  infidelity.  His  argument,  in 
substance,  is  this : — "  Experience,  which  in  some  things  is  variable,  in 
others  is  uniform,  is  our  only  guide  in  reasoning  concerning  matters  of 
fact.  Variable  experience  gives  rise  to  probability  only  ;  an  uniform  ex- 
perience amounts  to  proof.  Our  belief  of  any  fact  from  the  testimony  of 
eye-witnesses  is  derived  from  no  other  principle,  than  our  experience  of  the 
veracity  of  human  testimony.  If  the  fact  attested  be  miraculous,  there 
arises  a  contest  of  two  opposite  experiences,  or  proof  against  proof  Now, 
a  miracle  is  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  nature  :  and  as  a  firm  and  unal- 
terable experience  has  establislied  these  laws,  the  proof  against  a  mira- 
cle,—from  the  very  nature  of  the  fact, — is  as  complete  as  any  argument 
from  experience  can  possiblj"-  be  imagined  :  and  if  so,  it  is  an  undeniable 
consequence,  that  it  cannot  be  surmounted  by  any  proof  whatever,  de- 
rived from  human  testimony." 

To  this  specious  reasoning  it  may  be  replied, 

(1.)  ^I'hat  the  evidence  arising  from  human  testimony  is  not 

derived  solely  from  experience :  on  the  contrary,  testimony 

has  a  natural  influence  on  belief. 

It  is  therefore  more  consonant  to  truth,  to  say,  that  our  diffidence  in  tes- 
timony is  the  result  of  experience,  than  that  our  faith  in  it  has  this  four>- 
dation.  Besides,  the  uniformity  of  experience,  in  favour  of  any  fact,  is  not 
a  proof  against  its  being  reversed  in  any  particular  instance.  The  evi- 
dence, arising  from  the  single  testimony  of  a  man  of  known  veracity, 
will  go  furtlrer  to  eslablisli  a  belief  of  its  being  reversed. 

(2.)  What  is  usually  called  the  ^course  of  nature'  is  nothing 
but  the  will  and  i)leasure  of  God  acting  continually  upon  mat- 
ter, according  to  certain  rules  of  uniformity,  still  bearing  rela- 
tion to  contingencies.  Now  Cod  is  tiie  governor  of  the  moral 
as  well  as  of  the  physical  world :  and,  since  the  moral  well- 
being  of  the  universe  is  of  more  conseciuence  than  its  piiysical 
order  and  regularity,  it  follows,  that  the  latter  may  be  subser- 
vient, and  occasionally  yield  to  the  former. 

(3.)  The  futility  of  this  sophism  nuiy  also  be  ehown  upon  its 
own  avowed  principles.    If  the  secret  of  compounding  giia« 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  29 

powder  had  perished  by  the  accidental  death  of  its  inventor, 
immediately  after  its  extraordinary  powers  had  been  exhibited 
before  a  hundred  competent  witnesses,  on  the  principles  of  the 
sophism  now  before  us,  the  fact  of  its  extraordinary  powers 
must  be  rejected  as  a  falsehood. 

V.  The  Credibility  of  Miracles  does  not  decrease  with 
the  lapse  of  years,  as  the  antagonists  of  Christianity  ob- 
ject. 

There  may  be  cases,  in  which  crediblity  vanishes  with 
time;  but  no  testimony  is  really,  in  the  nature  of  things, 
rendered  less  credible  \>y  any  other  cause  than  the  loss  or 
want  of  some  of  those  conditions,  which  at  first  made  it 
rationally  credible.  A  testimony  continues  equally  cre- 
dible so  long  as  it  is  transmitted  with  all  those  circumstan- 
ces and  conditions,  which  first  procured  it  a  certain  degree 
of  credit  amongst  men,  proportionate  to  the  intrinsic 
value  of  those  conditions.  But  the  evidence  in  favour  of 
the  facts  of  the  Christian  Religion  has  i?icreased  instead 
of  diminishing ;  as  recent  inquiries  of  learned  men  have 
produced  fresh  testimonies. 

VI.  Criteria  of  Miracles : — they  are  six  in  number 
viz. : 

1.  A  miracle  should  have  an  important  end  in  view, 
worthy  of  its  author. 

2.  It  must  be  instantaneously  and  publicly  performed, 
before  credible  witnesses. 

3.  It  must  be  sensible  and  easy  to  be  observed;  in 
other  w^ords,  the  fact  purporting  to  be  miraculous  must  be 
such,  that  the  senses  of  mankind  can  clearly  and  fully 
judge  of  it. 

It  ought  to  be  independent  of  second  causes. 

Objection.— In  three  of  his  miracles  (John  ix.  1—7.  Mark 
viii.  23—26.  Mark  vii.  32—37.^  Jesus  made  use  of  external 
applications. 

Answer.— These  applications  were  made  only  upon  the  blind 
or  the  deaf ;  and  in  these  cases,  the  reason  for  using  them  seems 
to  have  been,  to  convey  to  the  persons  on  whom  the  miracu- 
lous cures  were  performed,  a  clear  assurance  that  Jesus  Christ 
was  the  author  of  such  cures. 

5.  Not  only  public  monuments  must  be  kept  up,  but 
some  outward  actions  must  also  be  constantly  performed, 
in  memory  of  the  facts  thus  publicly  wrought. 

6.  Such  monuments  must  be  set  up,  and  such  actions 
and  observances  instituted,  at  the  very  time  when  those 

3* 


30  DIVINE  AUTHORITY  OP 

events  took  place,  and  be  afterwards  continued  witliout 
interruption. 

These  two  rules  render  it  impossible  that  the  belief  of  any 
facts  should  be  imposed  upon  the  credulity  of  after  aires,  when, 
the  generation  asserted  to  have  witnessed  them  had  expired  ; 
for,  whenever  such  facts  come  to  be  recounted,  if  not  only 
monuments  are  said  to  remain  of  them,  but  public  actions  and 
observances  had  further  been  constantly  used  to  commemorate 
them  by  the  nation  appealed  to.  ever  since  they  had  taken 
place,  the  deceit  must  be  immediately  detected,  by  no  such 
monuments  appeariniz:,  and  by  the  experience  of  every  indi- 
vidual, who  could  not  but  know  that  no  such  actions  or  ob- 
servances had  been  used  by  them,  to  commemorate  such 
events. 

VII.  Application  of  these  Criteria  to  the  jVIiracles  re- 
lated in  the  Sacred  Writings. 

1.  With  regard  to  the  miracles  recorded  to  have  beea 
wrought  by  Moses  and  Joshua  : — 

The  posterity  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  being  chosen 
by  Jehovah  to  be  his  peculiar  people  for  the  preservation  of 
true  religion,  the  miracles  performed  on  their  behalf  were  un- 
questionably worthy  of  their  Alniiglity  Author.  These  mira- 
cles were  instantaneously  performeti  at  the  command  of  Moses, 
and  before  great  numbers  of  Egyi)tians  or  Israelites,  sometimes 
in  the  presence  of  both  nations :  as  in  the  case  of  the  plagues, 
and  the  destruction  of  Pharaoh's  army,  wliicli  were  witnessed 
by  the  whole  people  of  Israel,  and  were  felt  by  the  Egyptians. 

In  commemoration  of  these  and  other  miraculous  occurren- 
ces, were  instituted  the  three  great  festivals  of  the  Hebrews, 
— the  Passover,  tlie  feast  of  Tabernarles,  and  the  feast  of  Pen- 
tecost ;  all  the  first  born  of  man  and  beast  were  solenmly  con- 
secrated to  God  ;  and  the  tribe  of  Levi  was  set  apart,  in  special 
commemoration  of  the  destruction  of  the  first  born  of  the 
Eirvptians. 

^rhe  UK-'mory  of  the  miraculous  supply  of  the  Israelites  with 
food  was  perpetuated  by  tiie  |)0t  of  manna;  and  the  twelve 
stones,  taken  out  of  tiie  midst  of  Jordan  at  the  tune  of  the 
miraculous  passage  of  the  Israelites  over  that  river,  were  set  up 
by  Joshua  at  Gilgal,  as  a  perpetual  memorial  to  them. 

In  all  tliose  instances,  the  preceding  criteria  are  most 
decisively  established. 

2.  With  respect  to  the  miracles  related  in  the  New 
Tcstam<!nt. 

(1.)  The  NUMBER  of  Christ's  miracles  was  very  great. 

About  forty  of  them  are  narrated  at  lengtli.  The  iiospel 
history  is  full  of  ilicm  :  and  one  of  Cliri.si's  biographers  informs 
us  that  he  performed  a  greater  number  than  are  in  any  way 
recorded. 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  31 

(2.)  There  was  great  variety  in  the  miracles  recorded 

in  the  New  Testament. 

They  were  of  a  permanent  nature,  and  might  be  reviewed  and 
re-examined,  as  in  many  instances  they  actually  were.  We 
behold  Christ  giving  sight  to  the  born  blind  ;— heahng  the  ob- 
stinate leprosy ;— making  those  who  wanted  a  limb,  perfect ; — 
those  who  were  bowed  double,  straight ;— those  who  shook 
"With  palsy,  robust ;— nerving  the  withered  arm  with  strength  ; 
—restoring  the  insane  and  demoniacs  to  reason  ;— and  raising 
the  dead  to  life.  We  behold  the  apostles  also  expelling  de- 
mons, restoring  the  lame  from  his  birth,  giving  sight  to  the 
blind,  healing  all  maimer  of  diseases,  and  giving  life  to  the 
dead.  All  these  supernatural  works  were  performed,  not  in  a 
few  instances  with  hesitation  and  diffidence,  but  were  very  fre- 
quently repeated  through  a  series  of  years ;  so  that  all  suspicion 
of  human  management,  compact,  and  imposture,  was  for  ever 
precluded. 

(3.)  The  DESIGN  of  Christ's  miracles  was  important, 
and  worthy  of  their  Almighty  Author. 

The  end  and  purpose,  for  which  these  miracles  were  wrought, 
was,  to  carry  on  one  vast  and  consistent  plan  of  Providence, 
extending  from  the  creation  to  the  consummation  of  all  things : 
to  establish  a  system  of  belief,  hope,  and  practice  adapted  to  the 
wants  and  conditions  of  mankind ;  which  had  been  revealed  in 
part  to  the  Jews,  and  promised  to  the  prophets,  and  which 
tended  to  destroy  the  four  great  moral  evils,  so  prevalent  and 
so  pernicious,  viz.— atheism,  scepticism,  immorality,  and  vice. 
In  subservience  to  their  grand  object,  (the  confirmation  of  his 
divine  mission,)  the  miracles  of  Christ  were  wrought  for  the 
most  benevolent  of  all  purposes,— the  alleviation  of  misery  in 
every  form ;  and  they  carry  in  them  the  characters  ol  the 
greatest  goodness,  as  well  as  of  the  greatest  power. 

Only  two  of  Christ's  miracles  bear  any  marks  of  seve- 
rity ;  viz.  his  suffering  the  demons  to  enter  the  herd  of 
swine  (Matt.  viii.  28—^4.  Mark  v.  12 — 17.,)  and  his  caus- 
ing the  fig-tree  to  wither  a\\'ay. 

[i.]  As  to  the  destruction  of  the  swine,  though  commonly 
regarded  as  a  miraculous  work,  it  was  in  point  of  fact  not  a 
mfracle.  He  did  not  command^  but  only  permitted,  the  de- 
mons to  enter  the  swine  ;  for  which  permission  several  satis- 
factory reasons  may  be  assigned.  For,  if  the  owners  of  the 
swine  were  Jewfi,  as  there  is  every  reason  to  believe,  they  v/ere 
justly  punished  for  their  deliberate  violation  of  their  laws, 
which  prohibited  the  keeping  of  swine:  and  if  they  were  Gen- 
tiles, Christ  might  have  permitted  the  demons  to  enter  the 
swine,  to  convince  them  of  the  sanctity  and  divinity  of  the 
Jewish  laws  (which  they  were  accustomed  to  ridicule,)  and, 
further,  it  may  be,  to  punish  Ihem  for  laying  a  snare  in  the  way 
of  the  Jews. 


32  DIVINE  AUTHORITY  OF 

[ii.]  In  causing  the  barren  fig-tree  to  wither  away,  Jesus 
Christ  neither  invaded  private  property,  nor  did  any  injury  ta 
the  community  at  large ;  but  by  this  action  he  dictated  an  im- 
pressive and  important  moral  lesson  both  to  his  disciples  and  to 
all  mankind :  viz.— That  if  we  neglect  or  wilfully  misemploy 
our  opportunities  of  improvement  in  religious  knowledge  and 
in  holiness,  we  must  expect  to  be  withered  like  the  barren  fig- 
tree  before  the  displeasure  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  when  he  shall 
come  to  judge  the  world. 

Consider  further  the  greatness  of  Christ's  Miracles. 

The  diseases  which  he  healed  were  incurable,  inveterate,  and 
had  baffled  every  attempt  of  art :  and  this  greatness  of  Christ's 
miracles  secures  them  against  the  suspicion  of  imposture.  Im- 
postors usually  satisfy  themselves  with  little  tricks,  because 
they  are  less  open  to  suspicion,  and  usually  gain  credit. 

(5.)  Observe  also  the  persons  by  whom  these  miracles 
were  accomplished. 

They  were  wrought  by  persons,  who  were  known  to  be  poor, 
unlearned,  of  low  condition,  and  destitute  of  great  friends  and 
powerful  patrons  ;  who  gave  other  proofs  of  their  mission,  and 
did  not  rest  the  whole  of  their  cause  upon  miracles,  but  like- 
wise insisted  upon  the  reasonableness  of  the  doctrines  which 
they  offered  to  examination.  Further,  they  were  offered  by 
persons,  who  appealed  to  God,  and  declared  that  they  would 
perl\>rm  them. 

(6.)  The  persons,  before  whom  the  miracles  were 
wrought,  claim  our  especial  notice. 

They  were  \vroiight  in  a  learned  age,  and  before  people  who 
were  not  easily  deluded,  and  they  Vere  stigmatised  by  the 
name  of  magic. 

(7.)  The  MANNER  too  in  which  these  miracles  were  per- 
formed is  equally  worthy  of  attention  for  its  publicity, 
simplicity,  and  disinterestedness. 

(S.)  Another  circumstance,  whicii  confirms  the  validity 
and  truth  of  these  miracles,  is,  the  effects  produced  by 
them. 

Numbers  who  were  spectators  of  them  yielded  to  conviction, 

and  embraced  the  Gosi)el. 

(9.)  Lastly,  tlie  reality  of  the  miracles  of  Christ  and 
his  apostles  was  never  denied. 

Roth  Jewish  and  Heathen  opposers  of  the  Christian  faith 
were  constrained,  however  reluctantly,  to  admit  the  reality  of 
the  miracles  of  Christ  and  his  apostles;  though  thev  ascribed 
them  to  mairic,  and  denied  the  divine  commission  of  him  wha 
performed  them. 


THE  OLD  AND   NEW   TESTAMENTS.  33 

VIII.  A  brief  examination  of  a  few  of  the  principal 
Miracles  related  in  the  New  Testament. 

1.  The  Conversion  of  Water  into  Wine,  (John  ii.  1—10.) 
The  Jewish  weddings  continued  seven  days:  during  the  nuptial  feast, 
from  the  poverty  of  the  bridegroom  and  bride,  or  perhaps  from  the  num« 
ber  of  guests  being  greater  than  was  expected,  there  was  a  deficiency  of 
Wine.  Jesus  commanded  the  servants  to  fill  the  vessels  with  water  tip  to 
the  brim;  it  was  therefore  impossible  to  mix  any  wine.  The  servants 
alone  were  privy  to  the  process  ;  and  the  governor  of  the  feast  gives  his 
attestation  to  the  miraculous  supply  in  so  easy  and  natural  a  manner, 
that  we  cannot  but  esteem  it  beyond  the  reach  of  artifice. 

2.  The  miraculous  Feeding  of  Jive  thousand  men^  besides 
women  and  children,  (Matt.  xiv.  15—21.  Mark  vi.  35-^. 
John  vi.  5—13.) 

The  orderly  disposition  of  the  multitude,  in  ranks  by  hundreds  and  by 
fifties,  exposed  the  miraculous  operation  to  the  view  of  all ;  so  that  de- 
ception was  impossible.  The  gathering  up  of  twelve  baskets  full  ot  frag- 
ments is  a  proof  that  they  had  plenty  of  food ;  and  the  circumstance  of  the 
people  being  desirous  to  mcke  Christ  a  King  (for  which  he  rebuked  them 
on  the  following  day,)  is  a  further  proof  of  the  reality  of  the  miracle,  and 
of  the  impression  which  it  had  made, 

3.  The  Healing  of  the  Paralytic.  (Matt.  ix.  2—8.  Mark  iL 
4-12.    Luke  5. 18-26.) 

Tliis  miracle  was  wrought  in  the  presence  of  many  witnesses,  some  of 
whom  were  enemies  to  Jesus  Christ.  The  manner  in  which  the  sick  man 
was  presented,  is  unparalleled,  and  shows  the  confidence  which  he  and 
others  had  in  Christ's  power  of  liealing  him.  The  manner,  too,  in  which 
Christ  addressed  him,  is  still  more  striking,  beginning  with  the  remission 
of  his  sins,  without  saying  any  thing  concerning  his  malady. 

4.  The  giving  of  Sight  to  a  man  who  had  been  born  blind. 
(John  ix.  1—7. 

There  are  many  remarkable  circumstances  in  this  miracle.  The  man 
had  not  become  blind  by  any  accident,  which  admits  of  relief.  He  was 
born  blind.  He  did  not  ask  to  be  restored  to  sight :  thus  there  was  no 
room  for  suspicion  on  his  part. 

The  question,  proposed  by  the  disciples  (John  ix.  1,  2,)  proves  that  the 
man's  blindness  was  from  his  bhth  ;  but  the  answer  was  so  little  in  uni- 
son with  their  notions,  that  it  never  could  have  entered  their  minds  if 
they  had  not  heard  it  from  Jesus.  The  mode  employed  for  giving  thi.s 
man  sight,  was  utterly  inadequate  to  produce  the  effect  which  followed. 
Lastly,  the  miracle  was  performed  in  public,  and  immediately  subjected 
to  the  strictest  possible  scrutiny. 

5.  The  Cure,  by  Peter  and  John,  of  a  man  who  had  been 
Law.efrom  his  Birth  (Acts  iii.  1—10,)  is  equally  remarkable. 

The  man's  person  and  lameness  were  universally  known  in  Jemsalem ; 
a  perfect  cure  was  instantaneously  wrought ;  and  the  transaction  imme- 
diately underwent  a  severe  examination,  the  effect  of  which  was  only  to 
make  the  miracle  still  more  widely  known. 

6.  The  Raising  of  the  Daughter  of  Jairus  to  life.  (Matt.  ix. 
18.-26.    Mark  V.  22— 43.    Luke  viii.  41-56.) 

Though  all  the  circumstances  in  the  account  of  this  miracle  have  the 
aspect  of  the  most  natural  and  unexpected  occurrences,  (which  could 
neither  have  been  combined  by  human  contrivance  nor  anticipated  by 
buman  foresight,)  no  circumstance  was  wanting,  either  to  ascertain  the 


34  DIVINE  AUTHORITY  OF 

reality  of  the  miracle,  or  without  any  apparent  ostentation  or  design,  to 
give  it  the  most  unquestionable  publicity. 

7.  The  Raising  of  the  Widow*  s  Son  from  the  Dead  at  Nain, 
(Lukevii.  11—15.) 

The  fact  of  the  young  man's  death  was  indisputable:  a  considerable 
number  of  her  townsmen  accompanied  his  mother  who  was  following 
his  remains  to  the  grave  :  and  in  their  presence  the  miracle  was  instan- 
taneously and  publicly  performed. 

8.  The  Resurrection  of  Lazarus  from  the  dead.  (John  xi.) 
The  precise  time  of  Christ's  arrival  at  Bethany  gave  his  enemies  tui 
opportunity  of  observing  the  transaction.  "  Many  of  the  Jews  had  come 
to  Martha  and  Mary  :"  and  the  restoring  of  Lazarus  to  life  has  every  cha- 
racter of  a  miracle.  For  it  was  instantaneously  and  publicly  performed 
before  credible  witnesses ;  it  was  independent  of  second  causes ;  and  the 
end  for  which  it  was  performed,  was  important,  for  it  was,  to  attest  the 
divine  mission  of  the  Bon  of  God. 

IX.  The  most  remarkahle  of  all  the  miracles,  related 
in  the  New  Testament,  is  the  resurrection  of  Jesus 
Christ  from  the  dead,  and  it  demands  a  distinct  examina- 
tion. 

i.  As  to  Christ's  prophetic  declarations  concerning  his 
death  and  resurrection. 

Jesus  repeatedly  predicted  the  circumstances  of  his  death  and  resurrec- 
tion to  his  disciples.  Now,  when  he  did  this,  he  either  did  or  did  not  fore- 
see his  resurrection.  If  he  did  not  foresee  it,  with  what  hopes  did  he 
comfort  his  disciples?  and  why  did  he  voluntarily  offer  himself  to  death, 
and  actually  endure  the  ignominious  death  of  crucifixion"?  If  he  did 
foresee  that  he  should  rise  again,  he  could  not  have  believed  it,  but  only 
on  the  experience  he  had  already  made  of  his  power  of  giving  sight  to  the 
blind,  health  to  the  sick,  and  (above  all)  life  to  the  dead.  His  miracles 
therefore  must  be  true ;  and,  if  so,  he  then  possessed  !^ufficient  power  to 
raise  himself  to  life. 

No  one  can  doubt  that  Christ  foretold  his  resurrection,  who  considers 
that  it  was  on  this  very  account  that  the  chief  priests  and  Pharisees  set  a 
watch  at  the  sepulchre. 

2.  Evidence  of  the  Reality  of  the  resurrection. 

It  is  an  indisputed  fact  that  Jesus  died  upon  the  cross  and  was  interred 
in  the  sepulchre;  at  which  the  Jews  took  the  precaution  of  placing  a 
military  guard.  After  the  resurrection,  the  Jews  reported  that  tl)e  disci- 
ples stole  the  body  awny  while  the  guard  were  sleeping  ;  a  circumstance 
BO  manifestly  improliable  as  well  as  false,  that  Matthew,  though  he  faitli- 
ftiUy  records  the  report,  does  not  offer  a  syllable  to  refute  it. 

Consider  further, 

(1.)  The  terror  of  the  timid  disciples,  and  the  paucity  of  their  number; 
the  «easo?i,— that  of  the  great  annual  festival,  the  Passover,  when  Jeru- 
ealem  was  full  of  people,  and  when  also,  it  being  the  time  of  the  full 
moon,  tlie  niglit  was  very  llgnt. 

(2.)  Is  it  probable  that  so  many  men,  as  composed  the  guard,  would  all 
fall  asleep  in  the  open  air  at  once  7 

(3.)  If  the  soldiers  were  all  asleep,  they  could  not  know  what  was  doing 
in  the  mean  time;  would  not  the  noise,  made  in  opening  the  .«;tpulchre, 
have  awakened  some,  if  not  the  whole  of  them  7  and  if  any  of  ihi-m  were 
awake,  would  thev  not  soon  have  alarmed  tlie  rest,  and  prevented  such 
an  attempt? 

(4.)  Besides,  are  the  appearances  of  composure  and  regularity  in  the 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  35 

the  tomb  consistent  with  the  hurry  and  trepidation  of  thieves,  stealing 
when  an  armed  guard  is  at  hand,  and  in  a  moonlight  night  1 

(5.)  But,  observe  the  conduct  of  the  rulers.  Why  did  not  they  order 
the  Apostles  to  be  seized  1  Why  did  they  not  command  the  soldiers  to  be 
punished  ?  Why  did  they  not  bring  the  whole  to  a  judicial  determination  1 
Why  is  this  neglect  in  men  who  had  been  so  anxious  to  have  a  guard 
placed  upon  the  sepulchre  7  Why  did  they  never  after  charge  the  disci- 
ples or  apostles  themselves  with  having  stolen  the  body  1 

Objection.  Christ  did  not  show  himself  to  the  Chief 
Priests  and  Jews. 

Answer. — For  this  various  satisfactory  reasons  may  be  as- 
signed. 

[  i.]  It  is  not  probable  that  the  Jews  would  have  submitted  to  that  evi- 
dence. 

[n'.j  If  Jesus  had  appeared  to  them  after  his  resurrection,  and  they  had 
acknowledged  him  to  be  the  Messiah,  it  is  most  probable  that  the  persons 
who  made  this  objection  would  not  liave  been  satisfied,  but  would  have 
suspected,  and  would  have  represented,  the  whole  as  an  artifice  and  im- 
posture. Or,  it  might  have  been  said  that  they  were  liaunted  with  spec- 
tres, and  consequently  that  their  testimony  was  of  no  value. 

[m.]  If  they  had  remained  unconvinced,  the  fact  would  liave  been  ques- 
tioned :  if  they  had  been  convinced,  without  honesty  or  resolution  to  de- 
clare the  truth,  the  fact  would  still  have  been  doubtful ;  and,  if  they  had 
been  convinced,  and  had  acknowledged  Jesus  to  have  been  the  Messiah 
or  Christ,  loud  would  have  been  the  clamour  of  a  combination,  and  the 
progress  and  prevalence  of  Christianity  would  have  been  ascribed  to  the 
secular  influence  of  its  advocates. 

3.  The  Character  of  the  Witnesses  also  proves  t^e 
truth  of  the  Resurrection  of  Christ.     Observe, 
(1.)  The  Condition  of  these  witnesses. 

They  were  mean,  despised,  and  unlearned  men,  and  consequently  were 
unequal  to  the  task  of  imposing  upon  others. 

(2.)  Their  Number,  and  also  the  number  of  the  different 
appearances  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  was  more  than  sufficient  to 
establish  any  fact. 

Seven  different  Jewish  Writers  have  related  or  mentioned  not  fewer 
than  eleven  distinct  appearances  of  Jesus  Christ  at  difl'erent  hours  of  the 
day  and  at  different  places  ;  and  on  one  occasion  to  "  above  five  hundred" 
persons. 

(3.)  The  Incredulity  of  the  witnesses,  and  their  slowness  in 
believing  the  resurrection  of  Christ. 

(4.)  The  Moral  Impossibility  of  their  succeeding  in  palming 
an  imposition  upon  the  world.    Because, 

[L]  It  is  inconceivable  that  a  man  should  willingly  expose  himself  to 
all  sorts  of  punishment— even  to  death  itself — on  purpose  to  testify  a  mat- 
ter of  fact  which  he  knew  to  be  false. 

[it.]  Although  there  should  have  been  one  person  so  disposed,  it  cannot 
be  imagined — indeed  it  would  betheheiglit  of  absurdity  to  imagine, — that 
NUMBERS  would  have  formed  the  same  resolution. 

[in.]  Tliough  a  great  number  of  persons  should  have  agreed  together  to 
attest  a  falsehood,  yet  it  is  incredible  that  they  should  bear  witness  to  it, 
who  considered  perfidy  and  lying  as  sins  utterly  inconsistent  with  their 
salvation  :  neither  could  it  be  supposed  or  expected  of  those,  who,  if  they 
allowed  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ  to  be  a  fiction,  must  also  allow 
that  they  had  followed  an  imaginary  Messiah. 


gg  DIVINE  AUTHORITY  OF 

[it?.]  Such  a  mutual  concert  or  agreement  could  never  have  been  so 
carried  on,  but  that  some  of  them,  in  order  to  avoid  punishment,  or  to 
gain  reward,  would  have  disclosed  the  wliole  intrigue. 

[v.]  The  very  same  principles,  which  had  dissolved  their  mutual ^de- 
lity,  would  more  probably  break  off  their  mutual  treachery.  It  cannot 
reasonably  be  supposed  that  those  disciples,  who  were  scattered  when 
Uieir  master  was  crucified,  would  aflerwaida  conspire  to  aflirm  a  bold 
and  unprincipled  falsehood. 

(5.)  Observe  the  Facts,  which  they  themselves  avow. 

Their  testimony  relates  to  facts,  in  which  it  was  impossible  that  they 
could  have  been  deceived  ;  such  as  the  seeing,  touching,  silting  at  table 
and  conversing  with,  their  risen  master. 

(6.)  Consider  further  the  Agreement  of  their  evidence. 

They  all  unanimously  deposed  that  Christ  rose  from  the  dead. 

Observe  also  the  Tribunals  before  which  they  gave  evidence, 
and  the  multitude  of  people  by  whom  their  testimony  was  scru- 
tinised,—by  Jews  and  heathens,  philosophers  and  rabbis,  and 
by  a  vast  number  of  persons  who  went  annually  to  Jerusalem: 
for  Providence  so  ordered  those  circumstances,  that  the  testi- 
mony of  the  apostles  might  be  unsuspected. 

(8.)  Take  notice  also  of  the  Time,  when  this  evidence  was 
given. 

Only  three  days  after  the  crucifixion,  they  declared  that  Christ  was 
risen  again,  as  he  had  foretold.    Would  impostors  act  thus? 

(9.)  Consider  likewise  the  Place,  where  the  apostles  bore 
their  testimony  to  the  resurrection. 

They  preached  a  risen  Saviour,  in  the  synagogues,  and  in  the  praeto- 
rium, "at  Jerusalem,  the  very  city  where  he  had  been  ignoiriiniously 
crucified. 

(10.)  Consider  the  Motives,  which  induced  the  apostles  to 
publish  the  fact  of  Christ's  resurrection. 

It  was,  not  to  acquire  fame,  riches,  or  glory,  but  to  found  on  this  fact 
a  series  of  exliortations  to  repentance,  faith,  and  holiness:— topics  these 
which  were  never  proposed  by  an  impostor.  At  the  same  time,  they 
lived  ns  no  impostor  ever  did,  and  were  (uiabled  to  appeal  to  their  con- 
verts for  the  sanctity,  justice,  and  unblamable  tenour  of  their  own  lives. 

(11.)  Lastly,  the  Miracles  performed  by  these  witnesses  in 
the  name  of  Jesus  Christ,  after  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Snirit 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and  the  success  which  attended  their 
preach insr  throughout  the  world,  are  God's  testimojiy  to  the 
fact  of  Christ's  resurrection  from  the  dead,  as  well  as  to  their 
veracity  in  i>roclaiming  it. 

On  the  miraculous  fact  of  Clirist's  resurrection,  tlie  first 
four  of  the  Criteria  above  noticed  (see  p.  29.  supra)  are 
most  clearly  to  be  discerned.  With  regard  to  the  last  two, 
(see  p.  80,)  we  may  remark,  that  tlie  Lord's  Supper  was 
instituted  as  a  perpetual  memorial  of  tlie  death  of  Jesus 
Christ  ;  and  that  tiie  weekly  festival  of  the  Lord's  Day 
(or  Sunday)  commemorates  the  miraculous  fact  of  his 
resurrection.     These  memorials,  it  must  be  observed,  were 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  37 

instituted  at  the  very  time  when  the  circumstances  to 
which  they  relate  took  place,  and  they  have  been  observed 
tliroughout  the  Christian  world,  in  all  ages,  to  the  present 
time. 

X.  A  Comparison  of  the  Scripture  Miracles  with  pre- 
tended Pagan  and  Popish  Miracles. 

Counterfeit  miracles  are  no  proof  that  the  miracles,  re- 
lated in  the  New  Testament,  are  not  real :  the  more  strict- 
ly such  pretended  miracles  are  investigated,  the  more  de- 
fective is  the  evidence  adduced  for  them.     For, 

1.  The  scene  of  most  of  them  is  laid  in  remote  countries  and 
in  distant  ages. 

2.  They  were  performed  in  ages  of  gross  ignorance,  when 
the  common  people  were  likely  to  be  deceived,  and  were 
wrought  in  secresy. 

3.  They  were  performed  by  persons  of  high  rank,  who  were 
held  in  the  profound  est  veneration  by  the  common  people,  and 
were  never  subjected  to  any  scrutiny. 

4.  The  heathen  miracles  were  designed  to  support  the  esta- 
blished religion,  and  were  engrafted  upon  the  superstitious 
notions  of  the  vulgar. 

5.  They  are  not  vouched  to  us  by  any  credible  testimony. 

6.  They  were  not  credited  by  the  intelligent  and  judicious 
even  among  the  heathen. 

The  same  remarks  are  equally  applicable  to  the  pretended 
popish  miracles. 

But  the  contrary  is  the  case  with  respect  to  the  mira- 
cles recorded  in  the  Scriptures,  the  reality  of  which  is 
substantiated  by  the  most  positive  and  irresistible  evi- 
dence. 


Section  HI. — On  Prophecy. 

I.  Prophecy  defined. 

Prophecy  is  a  miracle  of  knowledge,  a  declaration,  or 
description,  or  representation  of  something  future,  beyond 
the  power  of  human  sagacity  to  discern  or  to  calculate  ; 
and  it  is  the  highest  evidence,  that  can  be  given,  of  super- 
natural communion  with  the  Deity,  and  of  the  truth  of  a 
revelation  from  God. 

II.  Difference  between  the  pretended  predictions  of 
Heathen  Oracles,  and  the  Prophecies  contained  in  the 
Scriptures. 

The   oracles  of  the   ancient  heathens  were  delivered 
either  for  the  purpose  of  satisfying  some  trivial  curiosity, 
4 


^  DIVINE  AUTHORITY  OF 

or  to  abet  the  designs  of  some  ambitious  leader.  They 
uttered  no  spontaneous  predictions.  Those,  who  conduct- 
ed them,  threw  various  obstacles  in  the  way  of  inquiry  by 
sacrifices,  <fec.  Sometimes,  the  gods  were  not  in  a  liu- 
mour  to  be  consulted :  at  other  times,  when  no  means  of 
evasion  remained,  the  answers  given  were  ambiguous  or 
delusive  ;  and  whenever  the  oracles  failed,  there  was  al- 
ways some  subterfuge,  to  which  the  priests  had  recourse. 
If  an  evil  event  took  place,  when  an  auspicious  one  had 
been  promised,  this  was  ascribed  to  the  fault  of  the  in- 
quirer. Something  defective  in  the  sacrifices  was  disco- 
vered, when  too  late  ;  or  the  gods  were  averse  to  him. 
If  the  contrary  proved  to  be  the  case,  this  was  ascribed  to 
the  intercession  of  the  priests. 

Widely  different  are  the  prophecies  contained  in  the 
Scriptures :  for, 

1.  They  were  delivered  without  solicitation,  and  were 
pronounced  openly  before  the  people :  and  the  prophet 
knew  himself  to  be  exposed  to  capital  punishment,  if  any 
one  of  his  predictions  were  to  be  overthrown.  The 
events  foretold  were  often  complicated  and  remote  ;♦ 
depending  on  the  arbitrary  will  of  man,  and  arising  from 
a  great  variety  of  causes,  which  concurred  to  bring  them 
to  pass. 

2.  Some  were  accomplished  shortly  after  they  were  de- 
livered :  others  somewhat  later  ;  and  others  had  a  still 
more  distant  object.  But  the  different  events  foretold 
were  so  connected  with  each  other,  that  the  most  distant 
bordered  pretty  nearly  upon  some  others,  the  accomplish- 
ment of  which  was  preparatory  to  the  fulfilment  of  the 
last.  The  fulfilment  of  tlie  first  served  to  raise  an  expec- 
tation of  those  which  were  distant,  and  the  accomplish- 
ment of  tlie  last  served  to  confirm  the  first. 

3.  A  large  portion  of  the  scripture-prophecies  was  com- 
mitted to  writing,  and  left  open  to  j)ublic  examination  : 
this  is  a  test,  which  the  spurious  predictions  of  the  hea- 
thens could  never  endure. 

III.  The  l^SK  and  Intent  of  Proj)hery  was, — to  raise 
expectation,  and  to  soothe  the  mind  with  hope  ;  to  main- 
tain the  faith  of  a  particular  providence,  and  the  assurance 
of  a  promised  Redj-emer;  and  to  attest  the  divine  inspi- 
ration of  the  Scriptures. 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENT.  39 

IV.  Of  the  CHAIN  of  Prophecy. 

The  scripture-prophecies  respect  contingencies  too  won- 
derful for  the  powers  of  man  to  conjecture  or  to  eflect. 
Many  of  tliose,  which  are  found  in  the  Old  Testament, 
foretold  unexpected  changes  in  the  distribution  of  earthly 
power  :  and,  whether  they  announced  the  fall  of  flourish- 
ing cities,  or  the  ruin  of  mighty  empires,  the  event  has 
minutely  corresponded  with  the  prediction.  These  pro- 
phecies form  a  regular  chain  or  system,  which  may  be  re- 
duced to  four  classes,  viz. 

1.  Prophecies  relating  to  the  Jewish  Nation  in  par- 
ticular. 

2.  Prophecies  relating  to  the  neighbouring  nations  or 
empires. 

3.  Prophecies  directly  announcing  the  Messiah. 

4.  Prophecies  delivered  by  Jesus  Christ  and  his 
apostles. 


Class  I.— Prophecies  relating  to  the  Jewish  Nation  in  particular. 

1.  Predictions  concerning  the  Posterity  of  Abraham. 
Gen.  xii.  1.     xlvi.  3. ;  Exod.  xxxii.  13.    Gen.  xiii.  16. 

XV.  5.  xvii.  2.  4 — 6.    xxii.  17.  xxvii.  4.  xxviii.  14.  xxxii. 
12.  XXXV.  11. 

See  tlie  fuliilment  of  these  predictions,  as  it  respects  the  Jews  (to  omit 
the  increase  of  Abraham's  otlier  posterity,)  in  Exod.  i.  7.  9.  12.  Numb, 
xxiii.  10.  Deut.  i.  10.  x.  22.  Ezek.  xvi.  7.  Heb.  vi.  12.  In  less  than 
five  hundred  years  after  the  first  of  the  above  predictions  was  delivered, 
the  number  of  the  Israelites  amounted  to  six  hundred  thousand  men,  be- 
sides women  and  children. 

2.  Prophecies  concejning  IshmaeL — Compare  Gen. 
xvi.  10—12.  xvii.  20,  and  xxv.  12—18. 

From  him  descended  the  various  tribes  of  Arabs,  whose  numbers  and 
manner  of  living  have  ever  since  been,  and  to  this  very  day  are,  a  verifi- 
cation of  the  predictions  respecting  them. 

3".  It  was  foretold  that  the  Posterity  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob,  should  possess  the  land  of  Canaan  :  so 
that,  though  they  should  be  expelled  thence  for  their  sins, 
yet  their  title  should  endure,  and  they  should  be  resettled 
in  it,  and  there  continue  in  peace  to  the  end  of  the  world. 
(See  Gen.  xii.  7.  xiii.  14,  15.  17.  xv.  18—21.  Exod. 
iii.  8.   17.     Gen.  xvii.  7,  8.) 

Accordingly,  the  Jews  enjoyed  this  land  for  above  a  thousand  years : 
and  when  the  two  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  were  carried  into  capti- 


40  DIVINE  AUTHORITY  OF 

vity,  It  was  announced  that  it  should  be  for  seventy  years:  which  the 
event  proved  to  be  true,  and  they  continued  in  poss(  ^  'on  of  Canaan,  for 
six  hundred  years,  until  the  final  subversion  of  their  )'  lity  by  Titus.  Al- 
Ihougli  the  ten  tribes  carried  captive  by  Shalinaneser.,  ad  the  body  of  the 
two  tribes  who  were  carried  into  captivity  by  Titus,  .  ;  ;  not  now  in  Ca- 
naan ;  yet  since  the  lime  of  their^/(ai  restoration  has  :  )t  arrived,  this  is 
no  objection  against  these  ancient  prophecies,  but  a  f u  •  Iment  of  othei-s: 
besides  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  Jews  will  ultimately  be  restor- 
ed to  their  native  country. 

4.  The  twenty-eighth  chapter  of  Deuterc;; my  contains 
most  striking  Predictions  concerning  the  Jews,  which 
have  literally  been  fulfilled  during  their  subj^r^ion  to  the 
Chaldaeans  and  Romans,  and  in  later  times  \\\  all  nations 
where  they  have  been  dispersed.  To  specify  a  very  few 
particulars: — 

(1.)  Moses  foretold  that  their  enemies  would  besiege 
and  take  their  cities  : 

This  prophecy  was  fulfilled  by  Shishak  King  of  Egypt,  Shalmaneser 
King  of  Assyria,  Nebuchadnezzar,  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  Sosius  and 
Herod,  and  finally  by  Titus. 

(2.)     Moses  foretold  grievous  famines   during  those 

tieges,  so  that  they  should  eat  the  flesh  of  their  sons  and 

daughters. 

This  was  fulfilled  six  hundred  years  after  the  time  of  Moses,  among  the 
Israelites,  when  Samaria  was  besieged  by  the  King  of  Assyria;  again, 
ebout  nine  hundred  years  after  Moses  among  the  Jews,  during  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem  before  the  Babylonish  captivity;  and,  finally,  fifteen  hun- 
dred years  after  his  time,  during  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans. 

(3.)  Moses  predicted  that  the  Jews  should  be  few  in 
number. 

This  was  literally  fulfilled  by  immense  numbers  perishing  by  famine 
during  the  last  siege  of  Jerusalem,  after  which  many  thousands  were 
cold  ;  and  also  after  their  final  overthrow  by  Hadrian,  when  many  thou- 
eands  were  sold,  and  those  for  whom  purchasers  could  not  be  found  (Mo- 
ees  had  foretold  that  7io  vian  would  buy  them)  were  transported  into  Kgypl, 
Where  very  many  perished  by  shipwreck  or  famine  ;  and  others  were  mua- 
eacred.  Yet  notwithstanding  all  their  miseries  and  oppressions,  they  sliU 
continue  a  separate  people,  and  have  become  "  an  astonishment  and  a 
Lye-word  among  the  nations." 

5.  Josiah  was  prophetically  announced  by  name, 
(1  Kings  xiii.  2,)  three  hundred  and  sixty-one  years  be- 
fore the  event. 

The  fulfilment  of  this  prophecy  was  remarkable,  plainly  showing  it  to 
be,  not  from  man,  but  from  God.    (2  Kings  xxxill.  15.) 

6.  The  utter  Subversion  of  Idolatry  among  tlie  Jews, 

foretold   by  Isaiah    (ii.  18 — ^21,)  was  fulfilled  after  their 

return  from  the  Babylonish  Captivity. 

The  calamitie.s,  denounced  against  them  by  the  same  prophet,  on  ac- 
count of  their  wlckcdtiesi^.  within  two  hundred  years  afterwards  overtook 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  4  J 

them.  (Isa.  iii.  1—14,  compared  with  2  Chron.  xxxvi.)  And,  on  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chald8eans,  a  few  poor  people  were  left  to 
till  the  land,  as  Isaiah  had  prophesied.  (Isa.  xxiv.  13,  14,  compared  with 
Jer.  xxxix.  10.) 

7.  Jeremiah  foretold  the  Conquests  of  Nebuchadnezzar ^ 
and  the  consequent  captivity  of  the  Jews. 

These  were  literally  accomplished.  Compare  Jer.  xxvii.  3—7,  with 
xxxix.  11 — 14-  And  although  the  predictions  of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel 
concerning  Zedekiah  appeared  to  contradict  each  other,  both  were  ful- 
filled in  the  event ;  Zedekiah  seeing  the  King  of  Babylon  at  Jerusalem, 
who  commanded  his  eyes  to  be  put  out,  and  being  carried  to  Babylon, 
where  he  died. 

8.  While  Ezekiel  was  a  captive  in  Chaldaea,  he  pro- 
phesied (v.  12,  and  viii.)  that  the  Jews,  who  remained  in 
Judaea,  should  he  punished  for  their  wickedness.  In  a 
very  ie\y  years  all  the  evils  predicted,  literally  came  upon 
them  by  the  Chaldaeans. 

9.  The  profanation  of  the  temple  by  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes,  was  foretold  by  Daniel  (viii.)  four  hundred  and 
eight  years  before  the  accomplishment  of  the  prediction. 
The  same  prophet  also  foretold  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  the  cessation  of  the  Jewish  sacrifices  and 
oblations. 

10.  Hosea  foretold  the  present  state  of  the  people  of 
Israel  in  these  words — "  They  shall  be  wanderers  among 
the  nations."  (12.  17.) 


Class  IL— Prophecies  relating  to  the  Nations  or  Empires  that  were  neigh- 
bouring to  the  Jews. 

1.  The  once  prosperous  city  of  Tyre^  as  Ezekiel  had 
foretold,  (xxvi.  3 — 5.  14.  21,)  is  now  become  like  "  the  top 
of  a  rock,  a  place  for  fishers  to  dry  their  nets    on." 

2.  The  prophecies  concerning  Egypt ^  (see  Isai.  xix. 
Jer.  xliii.  8 — 13,  and  xlvi. ;  and  Ezek.  xxix. — xxxii.,  par- 
ticularly Ezek.  xxix.  10.  15,  and  xxx.  6. 12.  13,)  have 
been  signally  fulfilled. 

Not  long  after  these  predictions  were  delivered,  this  country  was  suc- 
cessively attacked  and  conquered  by  the  Babylonians  and  Persians ;  next 
it  became  subject  to  the  Macedonians,  then  to  the  Romans,  after  them  to 
the  Saracens,  then  to  the  Mamelukes,  and  is  now  a  province  of  the  Turk- 
Ish  empire.  And  the  denunciation—"  I  will  make  her  rivers  dry,"  is  ful- 
filled by  the  generally  neglected  state  of  the  numerous  canals  with  which 
Egypt  was  anciently  intersected. 

2.   The   doom  of  Ethiopia  was   foretold  by  Isaiah, 
4* 


42  DIVINE  AUTHORITY  OF 

(xviii.    1 — 6,   XX.  3 — 5,   and  xliii.  3,)  and  by  Ezekiel, 
(xxx.  4 — 6.) 

This  country  was  invaded  by  Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria,  or  by  Esar- 
baddon  his  son,  and  also  by  Carnbyses,  King  of  Persia.  About  the  time 
of  Clnisl's  birth,  it  was  ravaged  by  the  Romans,  and  has  since  been  ra- 
\'aged  successively  liy  the  Suiaceiis,  Turks,  and  Giugas. 

4.  Such  an  "  utter  end"  has  been  made  of  Nineveh, 
agreeably  to  the  predictions  of  Nahum,  (i.  8,  9.  ii.  8 — 13. 
lii.  17 — 19,)  and  Zephaniah,  (ii.  13.  15,)  tliat  its  very  site 
cannot  be  ascertained. 

5.  Babylon  is  made  "  a  desolation  forever,"  as  Isaiah 
(xiii.  4.  19—22.  xliv.  27,)  and  Jeremiah  (1.  38.  Ii.  7.  30, 
37.  64,]  had  severally  foretold. 

This  city  was  taken,  when  Belshazzar  and  his  thousand  princes  were 
<3runk  at  a  great  feast,  after  Cyrus  had  turned  the  course  of  the  Euphrates, 
•which  ran  llirough  the  midst  of  it,  and  so  drained  its  waters  tlial  the  river 
became  easily  fordable  for  his  soldiers  to  enter  the  city.  Its  site  cannot 
now  be  exactly  determined. 

6.  Daniel  predicted  the  overthrow  in  succession  of  the 
four  great  Empires  of  antiquity  ;  the  Babylonian,  Per- 
sian, Grecian,  and  Roman.  (Dan.  ii.  39,  40.  vii.  17 — 24 
viii.)  This  prediction  has  literally  been  fulfilled  :  but 
neitlier  the  rise  of  the  last  three,  nor  their  fall,  could  have 
been  foreseen  by  men. 


Class  III.  Prophecies  directly  announcing  the  Meesiah. 

The  great  object  of  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  the  redemption  of  mankind.  This,  as  soon  as 
Adam's  fall  had  made  it  necessary,  the  mercy  of  God  was 
pleased  to  foretel.  And  as  the  time  for  its  accomplish- 
ment drew  near,  the  predictions  concerning  it  gradually 
became  so  clear,  that  almost  every  circumstance  in  the 
life  and  character  of  the  most  extraordinary  personage, 
that  ever  appeared  among  men,  was  most  distinctly  fore- 
told. 

The  prophecies  announcinfj  the  Messiah  are  numerous, 
pointed,  and  particular.  They  not  only  foretel  that  a 
Messiah  should  come  ;  but  they  also  specify  the  precise 
2'ime  when  he  was  to  come;  the  Dignity  of  his  Cha- 
racter^ that  he  should  be  God  and  man  totrethcr ;  from 
whom  he  was  to  be  descended  ;  the  Place  where  he  was 
to  be  born;  the  circumstances  of  his  Birth,  Manner  of 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  43 

Life  and  Doctrine,  his  sufferings  and  Death  ;  ResurreC'^ 
lion  and  Ascension  ;  and  the  Abolition  of  the  Jewish  Co^ 
venant  by  the  introduction  of  the  Gospel. — See  a  Table 
of  the  Principal  Prophecies  relative  to  the  Messiah,  in  the 
Appendix,  No.  VII. 

The  connexion  of  the  predictions  belonging  to  the  Mes- 
siah, with  those  which  are  confined  to  the  Jewish  people, 
gives  additional  force  to  the  argument  from  prophecy; 
affording  a  strong  proof  of  the  intimate  union  which  sub- 
sists between  the  two  dispensations  of  Moses  and  of  Jesus 
Christ,  and  equally  precluding  the  artful  pretensions  of 
human  imposture,  and  the  daring  opposition  of  human 
power.  The  plan  of  prophecy  was  so  wisely  constituted, 
that  the  passions  and  prejudices  of  the  Jews,  instead  of 
frustrating,  fulfilled  it,  and  rendered  the  person  whom  they 
regarded,  the  suffering  and  crucified  Saviour,  who  had 
been  promised.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  most  of  these 
predictions  were  delivered  nearly,  and  some  of  them  more 
tJian  three  thousand  years  ago.  Any  one  of  them  is  sufficient 
to  indicate  a  prescience  more  than  human  ;  but  the  col- 
lective force  of  all  taken  together  is  such,  that  nothing 
more  can  be  necessary  to  prove  the  interposition  of  Om- 
niscience, than  the  establishment  of  their  authenticity. 
And  this,  even  at  so  remote  a  period  as  the  present,  we 
have  already  seen,  is  placed  beyond  all  doubt. 


Class  IV. — Prophecies  by  Jesus  Christ  and  his  Apostles. 
Jesus  Christ  foretold, 

1.  The  Circiim stances  of  7j?*,9  own  death;  Matt.  xvi.  21. 
Mark  x.  33,  34.  Matt.  xx.  18,  19.  xxvi.  23.  31,  all  which  were 
most  minutely  accomplished. 

2.  His  Resurrection;  Matt.  xvi.  21.  xxvi.  32,  fulfilled  in 
Matt,  xxviii. 

3.  The  Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  Luke  xxiv.  49.  Mark 
xvi.  17,  18,  fulfilled  in  Acts  li. 

4.  The  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  with  all  its  preceding  signs 
and  its  concomitant  circumstances  ;  (Matt.  xxiv.  1—28.  Mark 
xiii.  1—23.  Luke  xxi.  5—24,)  and  the  very  generation  that 
heard  the  prediction  lived  to  be  the  miserable  witnesses  of  its 
accomplishment. 

,5.  The  Spread  of  Christianity  ;  and  both  sacred  and  profane 
historians  bear  testimony  to  the  rapid  propagation  of  the 
Gospel. 


44  DIVINE  AUTHORITY  OF 

The  character  of  the  age,  in  which  the  Christian  Faith  was 
first  j)r()()a,ijated,  ,must  be  considered. 

It  was  not  barbarous  and  uncivilized,  but  was  remarkable 
for  those  improvements  by  which  the  human  faculties  were 
strengthened. 

The  profession  of  Christianity  M'as  followed  by  no  worldly 
advantage,  but,  on  the  contrary,  with  proscriptions  and  perse- 
cutions. 

Sceptics,  particularly  Mr.  Gibbon,  have  endeavoured  to 
account  for  the  miraculous  success  of  Christianity  from 
causes  merely  human,  viz. 

(1.)  The  injlexihle  and  intolerant  Zeal  of  the  first 
Christians, 

This  indeed  might  supply  Christians  with  that  fortitude  which 
should  keep  them  firm  to  their  princi{)les  :  but  it  could  hardly 
be  of  service  in  converting  infidels.  No  intolerance,  however, 
existed  among  the  primitive  Christians ;  but,  on  the  contrary, 
among  their  heathen  persecutors. 

(2.)    The  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life. 

The  success  which  attended  the  preaching  of  this  doctrine, 
was  owing  rather  to  the  demonstration  of  the  spirit  and  of  the 
power  that  accompanied  it,  than  to  the  doctrine  itself,  which 
was  by  no  means  suited  either  to  the  expectations  or  the  wishes 
of  the  Pagans  in  general.  Men  must  have  believed  the  Gos- 
pel, generally,  before  they  believed  the  doctrine  of  a  future  hfe 
on  its  authority. 

(3.)  The  Miraculous  Poioers  ascribed  to  the  Primitive 
Church. 

The  actual  possession  of  such  powers  bv  the  apostles  and 
first  i)reacherR  of  Christianity  has  already  been  proved.  But 
when  the  n\m-\cr:o\\s, pretended  miracles  ascribed  to  the  popular 
deities  of  the  heathen,  and  the  contempt  in  which  they  were 
held  by  the  philosojjhers  and  by  other  thinking  men,  are  con- 
sidered, the  miracles  ascribed  to  the  first  propagators  of  Chris- 
tianity, must  have  created  a  prejudice  against  their  cause, 
which  nothing  could  have  subdued  but  miracles  really  and 
visibly  performed. 

(4.)  The  Virtues  of  the  first  Christians. 

These  Mr.  Gibbon  reduces  to  a  mean  and  timid  repentance 
for  sins,  and  zeal  in  supporting  the  reputation  of  their  society. 
But  such  virtues  would  have  eiiually  excited  opposition  to 
Christianity.  The  infidel  historian  does  not  account  for  the 
exemplary  virtues  of  the  first  Christians  ;  whose  virtues  arose 
from  their  faith,  and  not  their  faith  from  their  virtues. 

(5.)  llic  Union  and  Discipline  of  the  Christian  /Jc- 
publiCf  as  lie  terms  the  Christian  Church. 


THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS.  45 

But  it  is  an  incontrovertible  fact,  that  the  Gospel  was  propa- 

fated,  before  its  professors  were  sufficiently  numerous  to  esta- 
lish  a  discipline,  or  to  form  themselves  into  a  society. 

V.  Notwithstanding  the  variety  and  force  of  the  evi- 
dence in  favour  of  Christianity,  its  opposers  continue  to 
raise  a  variety  of  objections,  viz. 

Objection  1. —  The  rejection  of  Christianity  by  the 
unbelieving  Jews,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  and  also  by  the 
greater  part  of  the  Gentiles. 

In  reply  to  this  objection,  we  may 

Answer  1.— As  to  the  Jews— That  the  Almighty  does  not 
force  the  judgment,  and  that  their  wickedness  aiid  strongpre- 
judices  blinded  their  understandings,  and  prevented  them  from 
receiving  the  evidences  of  the  GospeL  Anger,  resentment, 
eelf-interest,  and  worldly-mindedness  induced  the  scribes  and 
Pharisees  to  reject  Christ  and  cause  him  to  be  put  to  death,  and 
to  prevail  upon  the  people  at  large  to  reject  the  Gospel.  Such 
were  the  principal  causes  of  the  infidelity  of  the  Jews  and  of 
their  rejection  of  Christ  dX  first:  nor  is  it  difficult  to  conceive 
what  may  be  the  reasons  of  their  persisting  in  their  infidehty 
noio.    For 

(1.)  In  the  first  place,  on  the  part  of  the  Jews^  most  (if  not 
all)  the  same  reasons  which  gave  birth  to  their  infidelity,  con- 
tinue to  nourish  it,  particularly  their  obstinacy,  their  vain  hopes 
and  expectations  of  worldly  greatness,  and  the  false  Christs  and 
false  prophets  who  at  different  times  have  risen  up  among 
them.  To  which  may  be  added  their  want  of  charitableness 
towards  Christians,  and  their  continuing  to  live  insulated  from 
the  rest  of  mankind. 

(2.)  Secondly,  on  the  part  of  the  world,  the  obstacles  are, 
the  prevalence  of  Mohammedism,  and  other  false  religions,  the 
schisms  of  Christians,  the  unholy  lives  of  many  nominal  Chris- 
tians, and  the  cruelties,  which  have  at  various  times  been  in- 
flicted on  this  unhappy  people.  So  far,  however,  is  the  infi- 
delity of  the  Jews  from  being  an  objection  to  the  truth  of  "the 
Gospel,  that,  on  the  contrary,  it  affords  us  a  great  number  of 
unsuspected  witnesses  to  the  truth  of  the  Old  Testament:  and 
many  predictions  of  Moses  and  the  prophets,  of  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  are  remarkably  fulfilled.  It  is  also  a  great  advantage 
to  the  Christian  Religion,  to  have  been  first  preached  and 
propagated  in  a  nation  of  unbelievers:  for  nothing  but  divine 
truth  could  have  stood  the  trial,  and  triumphed  over  all  oppo- 
sition. 

Answer  2. — With  regard  to  the  rejection  of  the  Gospel  by 
the  Gentiles,  many  of  the  preceding  observations  on  the  infi- 
delity of  the  Jews  are  equally  applicable  to  them.  Both  Jews 
and  Gentiles  were  influenced  by  the  prejudices  of  education, — 
by  hatred  of  the  pure  morality  of  the  Gospel,— by  the  temporal 
inconveniences  which  attended  the  profession  of  Christianity, 
and  the  temporal  advantages  to  be  obtained  by  rejecting  or 
opposing  it,— by  the  mean  appearance,  which  Christ  had  made 


4G  DIVINE  AITTHORITY  OF 

in  the  world, — and  by  his  ignominious  death,  which  they  knew 
not  how  10  reconcile  with  the  divine  power  :..-(ribed  to  him  by 
liis  disciples. 

The  Gentiles  also  had  other  causes  of  unUi  iief  peculiar  to 
themselves,  viz.  the  high  notion,  entertained  i^  iheni,  of  the 
eflicacy  of  niag-ic,  of  charms  and  incantations,  and  of  the 
})Ower  of  demons  anddcmi-^ods  ; — their  indifiTercnce  about  reli- 
gion in  general, — the  utter  incompatibility  of  <  liristianity  witli 
the  established  worship  of  their  several  coimti  es, — the  bad 
opinion  which  they  had  of  the  Jews  in  general,  oi  whom  Chris- 
tians were  for  some  time  accounted  to  be  a  sect,  ihe  false  doc- 
trines and  crimes  of  heretical  teachers  and  vicious  professors 
of  Christianity,— and  lastly,  the  antiquity  of  j)at;iiiism. 

OnjKCTioN  2. —  The  prevalence  of  Mohammedism  over 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  world. 

Answer. — The  projjhecics  are  fulfilled,  when  all  parts  of  the 
world  shall  have  fuid  the  offer  of  Christianity  ;  but  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  it  shall  be  upheld  among  them  6j/ a  7?//mc/e!. 
Tlie  present  state  of  those  countries;,  where  the  Koran  is  re- 
ceived, is  an  accomplishment  of  prophecy  ;  ina.«much  as  it  was 
foretold  that  such  an  ai)ostacy  would  tuke  place.  The  ra|)id 
progress  ()f  Mohammedism  is  not  to  be  compared  with  the 
|)ropagation  of  Christianity,  for  Mohammed  came  into  the 
world  at  a  time  exactly  suiied  to  hit!  puijjoses,  when  its  policy 
and  civil  stale  were  favourable  to  a  new  and  ambitious  con- 
queror: and  he  availed  himself  of  every  means,  especially 
force  of  arms,  to  ijromote  tlie  diffusion  of  his  pretended  reve- 
lation. 

Objection  3. — Christianity  is  knoton  only  to  a  small 
portion  of  mankind. 

Answer.— For  one  who  professes  deism,  we  shall  find  in  the 
world  ONE  THOUSAND  wlio  i)rof(\«-s  (,'hristianity. 

The  |)artial  pr()i)agation  of  the  Gospel,  witii  the  other  objec- 
tions brought  against  (Christianity,  having  rendered  its  divine 
oriirinal  a  matter  of  dispute,  the  tendency  ol  these  disputes  has 
been  to  separate  the  wheat  from  the  cliatf,  and  to  make  Chris- 
tians draw  their  religion  from  the  Scripturjs  alone. 

'J'he  not  iiaving  more  evidence  for  Ihe  Irulli  of  the  (lositel  is 
not  a  Hiinieient  r(;ason  for  rejectiiur  that  which  we  already  have. 
If  such  evidence  W(!re  irresistil>lt%\{  woidd  reslraiii  the  volun- 
tary |M)werf!  too  much,  to  answer  the  jturpose  of  trial  and  pro- 
bation. "Men's  moral  probation  maybe,  \vhether  they  will 
lake  (hie  can;  to  inform  themselves  by  impartial  consideration; 
and  afterwards,  whether  they  will  act  as  the  case  requires,  ui)on 
the  evidence  they  have."  Furliu'r,  if  the  evidence  of  the 
Gospel  were  irresistible,  it  would  leave  no  room  for  internal 
<'.^'idenco.  They  who  sincerely  act^  or  endeavour  to  a(  t  accr)rd- 
mir  to  the  just  result  of  the  |)rol'abilities  in  natural  niid  reveal- 
ed reliirion,  seldom  fail  of  i)roceeding  furtluT;  while  those, 
wlio  act  in  a  contrary  manner,  nec<^ss:irily  fail  to  perceive  the 
Corce  of  the  evidences  for  the  truth  of  the  Gospel. 


INTERNAL  EVIDENCES  OP  THE  SCRIPTURES.       47 

VI.  Objections  have  been  made  to  the  darkness  and 
uncertainty  of  prophecy,  wliich  have  been  ascribed, 
1.  To  its  Language;  and  2.  To  the  Indistinctness  of  its 
Representations, 

Answer  1. — With  regard  to  prophetic  Language^  as  pro- 
phecy is  a  pecuhar  species  of  writing,  it  is  natural  to  expect  a 
peculiarity  in  the  language  of  which  it  makes  use.  Sometimes 
it  employs  plain  terms,  but  most  commonly  figurative  ones.  It 
has  symbols  of  its  own,  which  are  common  to  all  the  prophets ; 
and  these  symbols  have  their  appropriate  rules  of  interpre- 
tation. 

Answer  2.— With  respect  to  the  alleged  Indistinct  Repre- 
sentations of  events  predicted,  it  should  be  remembered,  that, 
if  some  prophecies  be  obscure,  others  are  clear:  the  latter  fur- 
nish a  proof  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures,  the  former 
contain  nothing  against  it.  Some  predictions  were  to  have 
their  accomplishment  in  the  early  ages  of  the  church,  while 
others  were  designed  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  lived  in 
after  ages. 

Answer  3.— Another  reason  for  throwing  a  veil  over  the 
face  of  prophecy  will  appear  on  considering  the  nature  of  the 
SUBJECT.  Some  of  the  events  predicted  are  of  such  a  nature, 
that  the  fate  of  nations  depends  U])on  them  ;  and  they  are  to 
be  brought  into  existence  by  the  instrumentality  of  men.  In 
the  present  form  of  prophecy,  men  are  left  entirely  to  them- 
selves ;  and  they  fulfil  the  prophecies  without  intending,  or 
thinking,  or  knowing  that  they  do  so.  The  accomplishment 
strips  off  the  veil,  and  then  the  evidence  from  prophecy  appears 
in  all  it^splendour. 


CHAPTER  V. 

INTERNAL  EVIDENCES  OP   THE   INSPIRATION   OP   THE   SCRIPTURES. 

Section  I.— The  System  of  Doctrine  and  the  Moral  Precepts,  which  are 
delivered  in  the  Scriptures,  are  so  excellent  and  so  perfectly  holy,  that 
the  Persons  who  published  them  to  the  World,  must  have  derived  them 
from  a  purer  and  more  exalted  Source  than  their  own  Meditations. 

The  sacred  volume  opens  with  an  account  of  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world  by  the  Almighty,  and  of  the  formation 
of  man  in  a  happy  state  of  purity  and  innocence.  In 
this  account  there  is  nothing  but  what  is  agreeable  to  right 
reason,  as  well  as  the  most  ancient  traditions  which  have 
obtained  among  the  nations.  We  are  further  informed, 
that  man  fell  from  that  state  by  sinning  against  his  Maker  ; 
and  that  sin  brought  death  into  the  world,  together  with 
all  the  miseries  to  which  the  human  race  is  now  obnoxious  j 


49  INTERNAL  EVmENCES  OP 

but  that  the  merciful  Parent  of  our  being,  in  his  great 
goodness  and  compassion,  was  pleased  to  make  such  reve- 
lations and  discoveries  of  his  mercy,  as  laid  a  proper 
foundation  for  the  faith  and  hope  of  his  offending  creatures, 
and  for  the  exercise  of  religion  towards  him.  (Gen.  iii.) 
Accordingly,  the  religion  delivered  in  the  Scriptures  is  the 
religion  of  man  in  his  lapsed  state :  and  every  one,  who 
impartially  and  carefully  investigates  and  considers  it, 
will  find,  that  one  scheme  of  religion  and  of  moral  duty, 
substantially  the  same,  is  carried  throughout  the  whole,  till 
it  was  brought  to  its  full  perfection  and  accomplishment  by 
Jesus  Christ.  This  religion  may  be  considered  principaU^ 
under  three  periods,  viz. 

1.  The  Religion  of  the  Patriarchal  Times  ; 

2.  The  Doctrines  and  Precepts  of  the  Mosaic  Dispen* 
Sation  ;  and 

3.  The  Doctrines  and  Precepts  of  the  Christian  Revfr- 
lation. 


§  1.— A  Concise  View  of  the  Religion  of  the  Patriarchal  Times. 

The  Book  of  Genesis  exhibits  to  us  a  clear  idea  of  the 
Patriarchal  Theology,  which  taught 

I.   Concerning  the  nature  and  attributes  of  Goa: 

That  Me  is  the  Creator,  Governor,  anrt  Preserver  of  all  things  ;  that  He 
Is  eternal,  omniscient,  true,  omnipotent,  holy,  and  just,  kind,  supreme, 
merciful,  long-suffering,  gracious  towards  them  that  fear  Him,  and  thaJ 
He  is  not  the  Author  of  ??in. 

[I.   Concerning  the  Worship  of  God: 

The  Patriarchs  held  that  it  was  the  duty  of  men  to  fear  Him,  to  bless 
Him  for  mercies  received,  and  to  supplicate  Him  with  profound  humility; 
that  the  knowledge  of  God  is  to  be  promoted;  vows  made  to  Him  are  to 
be  performed,  and  Idolatry  is  to  be  renounced.  With  regard  to  the  exter- 
nal rites  of  religion,  the  most  ancient  on  record  is  that  of  offering  sacri- 
fice ;  and  the  Sabbath  also  appears  to  have  been  observed  by  llie  Patrl. 
archs. 

III.  With  regard  to  the  Moral  Duties  between  man 

and  man : 

These  likewise  are  clearly  announced,  either  by  way  of  precept  or  by 
example;  more  particularly,  the  duties  of  children  to  honour  their 
parents,  of  parents  to  instil  religious  principles  into  the  minds  of  their 
offspring,  and  of  servants  to  obey  their  masters.  Wars  may  he  waged  in 
a  good  cause.  Anger  Is  sinful  in  the  sight  of  God ;  strifes  are  to  be  ovoid' 
ed;  murder  is  proliibited  ;  hospitality  is  to  be  i-xercised;  and  Injuries  are 
Xo  be  forgiven.    Matrimony  is  appointed  by  God,  from  whom  a  vlrluoufl 


THE  INSPIRATION  OP  THE  SCRIPTURES.  49 

Wife  is  to  be  sought  by  prayer ;  and  a  wife  is  to  be  subject  to  her  husband. 
Children  are  the  gift  of  God ;  and  adultery  and  all  impurity  are  to  be 
avoided. 


§  2.— A  Summary  View  of  the  Doctrines  and  Precepts  of  the  Mosaic 
Dispensation. 

The  Mosaic  Dispensation  was  substantially  the  same  as 
that  given  to  the  Patriarchs,  but  with  the  addition  of  a 
special  covenant  made  by  the  Almighty  with  a  particular 
people,  for  wise  and  moral  purposes  worthy  of  the  Su- 
preme Being,  and  beneficial  in  its  results  to  the  whole 
human  race. 

I.  In  the  Mosaic  Law  the  essential  Unity  of  God  is 
most  explicitly  inculcated,  no  less  than  His  underived  self- 
existence,  eternity,  immutability,  omnipotence,  providence, 
justice,  mercy,  and  other  perfections.  And  the  same 
sublime  representations  of  the  Divine  Being  and  Perfec- 
tions are  made  by  the  prophets  and  other  inspired  writers 
among  the  Jews. 

II.  Concerning  the  Duty  of  Man  towards  God, — both 
Moses  and  the  Prophets  enforce  the  obligation  of  loving 
Him,  fearing  Him,  believing  in  Him,  trusting  in  His  pro- 
mises, and  obeying  all  His  commandments  ;  together  with 
the  duties  of  patience  and  resignation  to  the  divine  will, 
and  the  internal  worship  of  the  heart. 

III.  The  belief  of  a  Future  State,  which  was  held  by 
the  Patriarchs,  (though  not  explicitly  taught  by  Moses, 
whose  writings  pre-suppose  it  as  a  generally  adopted  arti- 
cle of  religion,)  was  transmitted  from  them  to  the  Israel- 
ites, and  appears  in  various  parts  of  the  Old  Testament. 

The  Book  of  Job  is  very  explicit  on  this  subject ;  David  has  spoken  of 
it  with  great  confidence,  particularly  in  Psalms  xxi.  xxxvi.  xlix.  Ixxiii. 
and  cxxxix.  ;  and  Solomon  expressly  alludes  to  it  in  Proverbs  v.  21—23. 
xiv.  32,  and  Eccles.  iii.  16,  17,  and  viii.  II.  13.  This  doctrine  is  also  incul- 
cated, and  pre-supposed  as  a  matter  of  popular  beUef,  by  the  prophets 
Isaiah  (xiv.  19.  xxvi.  19—21,)  Hosea  (xiii.  14,)  Amos  (iv.  12,  13,)  and 
Daniel  (viii.  9—14.  xii.  1—3.) 

IV.  The  Expectation  of  a  Redeemer,  which  had  been 
cherished  by  the  Patriarchs,  was  also  kept  up  by  various 
predictions,  delivered  by  Moses  and  the  prophets. 

V.  The  Morality  of  the  Jewish  Code  exhibits  a  per- 
fection and  beauty  in  no  respect  inferior  to  its  religious 
doctrines  and  duties.  We  owe  to  it  the  decalogue — a 
Dianual  of  duty  to  God  and  man,  so  pure  and  comprehen- 


50  INTERNAL  EVIDENCES  OP 

sive,  as  to  be  absolutely  without  parallel :  and  the  sanc- 
tions of  the  remaining  enactments  of  the  law  are  such  as 
morality  possessed  in  no  other  nation.     More  particularly, 

1.  It  taught  humility  and  meekness. 

2.  It  prohibited  all  uncleanness  and  unnatural  lusts,  as  well  as  drunk- 
enness, gluttony,  and  all  covetous  desires. 

3.  Our  duty  towards  our  neighbour  is  also  clearly  set  forth  (Levit.  xix. 
18,)  together  with  all  the  social  and  relative  duties  of  life. 

4.  Every  kind  of  justice  was  strictly  required  by  the  law  of  Mobes. 
Murder  was  forbidden  by  the  sixth  commandment,  adulteiy  by  the 
seventh,  and  theft  by  the  eighth.  All  kinds  of  violence,  oppression,  and 
fraud  were  also  forbidden. 

5.  All  hatred  and  malice  were  prohibited;  nor  were  kind  offices  to  be 
confined  to  brethren  and  friends ;  they  were  also  to  be  performed  to  ene- 
mies and  to  strangers.  Nay,  mercy  was  to  be  extended  even  to  the  brute 
creation. 

VI.  The  Mosaic  Dispensation  was  introductory  to 
Christianity. 

The  Law  of  Moses,  though  not  absolutely  perfect,  had  a  perfection  suit- 
ed to  its  kind  and  design.  It  was  adapted  to  the  genius  of  the  people  to 
whom  it  was  given,  and  calculated  to  keep  them  distinct  from  the  rest  of 
mankind,  and  to  prevent  them  from  being  involved  in  the  idolatries  com- 
mon among  other  nations.  It  was  at  the  same  time  ordained  to  pre-sig- 
nify  good  things  to  come,  and  to  bear  a  strong  attestation  to  the  truth  of 
the  Christian  Religion. 

But,  however  excellent  in  itself,  and  admirably  adapted 
to  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  designed,  the  Mosaic 
Dispensation  was  only  of  a  local  and  temporary  nature, 
and  preparatory  to  that  fuller  manifestation  of  the  divine 
will,  which  "  in  the  fulness  of  time"  was  to  be  made  known 
to  the  world  under  the  Gospel  Dispensation. 


S  3. — A  Summary  View  of  the  Doctrines  aind  Precepts  of  the  Gospel 
Dispensation. 

I.  The  whole  Character  and  Conduct  of  the  Founder 
of  Christianity  proved  him  to  be  a  divine  person.  Never 
indeed  was  there  so  perfect  a  character,  so  godlike,  vene- 
rable, and  amiable,  and  so  utterly  remote  from  that  of  an 
entiiusiast  or  an  imjiostor. 

II.  The  Leading  Doctrines  of  the  Gospel  are  worthy 
of  the  character  of  the  Almiiriity,  and  adanted  to  the  ne- 
cessities of  mankind.     More  jjarticularly, 

1.  Tlie  Account  of  God  and  of  his  Perfcctioiis,  is  worthy  of  the  highest 
and  most  excellent  of  all  beings.  Of  all  Uie  views  of  (Jod  which  had 
ever  btjcn  given,  none  was  so  calculated  to  eiideur  Ilim  to  ua,  and  to  In- 
«plre  our  licurls  with  confidence,  as  this  short  hut  inlercsiing  description, 
of  which  the  scheme  of  redemption  affurds  a  sublime  illustration— "God 
ia  Leva '" 


THE  INSPIRATION  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES.  5  J 

2.  What  men  had,  in  all  ages,  wifhed  for  in  vain — an  Atonement  for 
sin,  (which  conscience  and  their  natural  notions  of  divine  justice  taught 
them  to  be  necessary)— the  Sacred  Books  point  out  in  the  death  of  Jesus, 
"Which,  in  consequence  of  tlie  dignity  of  liis  person,  our  reason  perceives 
to  have  been  of  sutlicienl  value  to  expiate  the  guilt  of  innumerable 
millions. 

3.  The  divine  justice  being  satisfied,  we  are  assured  of  the  Forgiveness 
of  our  Sins,  through  Jesus  Christ,  upon  sincere  repentance;  and  our  sins 
being  forgiven,  we  are  justified,  or  '•  accounted  righteous  before  God,  only 
for  the  meritof  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  by  faith,  and  not  for  our  own  merits 
or  deservings." 

4.  In  the  Gospel  we  find  the  best  principles  of  comfort  and  refreshment 
to  the  soul,  under  all  the  calamities  and  afflictions  of  life,  as  well  as  a 
rich  magazine  of  all  means  proper  for  the  sanctification  of  our  souls,  and 
our  most  successful  advances  in  true  piety.  In  the  Scriptures  we  see  that 
the  Hall/  Spirit  is  ready  with  his  mighty  aids  (wliich  are  promised  to  all 
who  humbly  pray  for  them,)  to  assist,  enlighten,  and  strengthen  our  spirits 
in  proportion  to  our  sincere  desires  and  endeavours  after  godliness  ;  and 
there  we  are  directed  every  day  and  at  all  times,  to  seek  unto  God,  through 
Christ,  by  fervent  and  believing  prayer,  for  his  guidance  and  protection, 
and  are  assured  that  we  shall  never  seek  his  face  in  vain. 

5.  In  favour  of  the  bnmortality  of  the  Soul,  a  point  so  important,  but 
Which  to  the  wisest  of  the  Gentiles  seemed  so  doubtful,  the  Scriptures 
speak  in  the  most  decisive  language,  and  hold  out  to  the  hopes  and  fears 
of  mankind  rewards  and  punishments  suited  to  their  nature,  and  which 
it  is  worthy  of  God  to  dispense. 

6.  Lastly,  in  the  Gospel  we  see  the  dead  both  small  and  great  restored 
to  life,  and  appearing  before  the  tribunal  of  God,  to  receive  a  sentence, 
"  according  to  the  deeds  done  in  the  body."  The  glories  of  heaven,  which 
are  reserved  "for  them  that  love  him,"  and  the  eveilatling  miteries, 
whicli  will  be  the  terrible  portion  of  all  the  wilfully  impenitent  Avorkers 
of  iniquity,  are  disclosed  in  the  Scriptures:  which  alone  set  forth  the  true 
reason  of  our  being  in  tliis  world,  viz.  not  for  enjoyment  but  for  trial ;  not 
to  gain  temporal  pleasures  or  possessions,  but  that  our  souls  may  be  dis- 
ciplined and  prepared  for  immortal  honour  and  glory.  While  the  divine 
displeasure  is  declared  against  all  ungodliness  and  unrighteousness  of 
men,  and  the  most  awful  warnings  are  denounced  against  sinners,  the 
means  by  which  they  may  obtain  mercy  are  clearly  displayed  and  offered 
to  them. 

In  all  these  doctrines  we  observe  nothing  low,  or  mean, 
or  frivolous  :  every  one  of  them  is  grand,  sublime,  and 
worthy  of  God ;  every  one  of  them  is  most  deeply  inte- 
resting to  man  ;  and,  altogether,  they  make  up  an  infinitely 
more  consistent  and  rational  scheme  of  belief,  than  the 
most  distinguished  sages  of  antiquity  ever  did  contrive, 
or  the  most  cunning  of  modern  unbelievers  can  possibly 
invent. 

III.  The  Moral  Precepts  of  the  Gospel  are  admira- 
bly adapted  to  the  actual  state  of  mankind. 

1.  As  to  the  Duties  betw^een  man  and  man,  the  Gospel  particularly  en- 
joins integrity  of  conduct,  charity,  forgiveness  of  injuries. 

2.  It  lays  down  the  duties  incumbent  upon  us  in  the  several  relations 
which  we  sustain  in  civil  and  social  life ;  for  instance,  the  mutual  duties 
of  governors  and  subjects,  masters  and  servants,  husbands  and  wives, 
parents  and  children. 


52  INTERNAL  EVIDENCES  OF 

3.  It  enforces,  aiid  recommends  by  vario\as  considerations,  the  persona] 
duties  of  sobriety,  temperance,  chastity,  humihty,  «Scc.  ;  and  guards  ua 
against  an  immoderate  passion  for  transient  worldly  riches ;  while  it 
airords  us  the  best  remedies  against  anxious  cares,  excessive  sorrows,  and 
desponding  fears.  Wliile  it  enjoins  trust  in  God,  it  directs  us  to  the  use 
of  all  honest  and  proper  means  and  industry  on  our  parts, 

4.  The  Holiness  of  the  moral  precepts  of  the  Gospel  is  another  proof  of 
its  divine  origin.  All  its  precepts  aim  directly  at  the  lieart ;  teaching  us 
to  refer  all  our  actions  to  the  will  of  our  Creator,  and  correcting  all  self- 
ishness in  the  human  character,  by  teaching  us  to  have  in  view  the  hap- 
piness of  those  about  us. 

5.  The  Manner  in  which  the  morality  of  the  Gospel  is  delivered  attests 
its  divine  origin. 

Among  the  heathen,  no  provision  was  made  for  the  moral 
instruction  of  the  unlettered  multitude :  but  Christ  taught  all 
that  would  listen  to  him,  with  inimitable  plainness  and  sim- 
plicity, and  at  the  same  lime  with  the  most  perfect  modesty 
and  delicacy,  blended  with  the  utmost  boldness  and  integrity. 

The  character  of  Christ  forms  an  essential  part  of  the  mo- 
rality of  the  Gospel.  To  the  morality  of  almost  every  other 
teacher,  some  stain  attaches:  but  he  is  charged  by  no  vice 
either  by  friends  or  by  enemies.  In  each  of  the'four  narratives 
of  his  life,  besides  the  absence  of  every  ai)pearance  of  vice,  we 
perceive  traces  of  devotion,  humility,  patience,  benignity,  be- 
nevolence, mildness,  and  prudence.  In  sliort,  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  replete  with  piety  and  devotional  virtues,  which  were 
unknown  to  the  ancient  heathen  moralists. 

IV.  Superiority  of  the  Motives  to  duty  presented  by 
the  Gospel. 

However  excellent  and  complete  a  rule  of  moral  duty  may 
be  in  itself,  it  will  not  and  cannot  answer  the  end  proposed,  un- 
less it  be  enjoined  by  a  proper  authority,  and  enforced  by  the 
most  powerful  motives.  Now  in  this  respect  the  religious  and 
moral  precepts  of  the  Gospel  have  an  intinite  advantage  over 
every  other  system  of  doctrine  or  of  morals  ;  for  they  are  urged 
upon  us  as  the  commands  of  the  Eternal  God  himself,  and  are 
enforced  by  various  motives,  which  are  admirably  adapted  to 
in^uence  the  human  heart.    These  motives  are  drawn, 

1.  From  a  consideration  of  the  lieasonahleness  of  the  Duty  recom- 
mended or  enforced,  or  the  infamy  of  the  vice  from  which  Chrittiaus  are 
dissuaded.  See  instances  of  this  in  Rom.  xli.  1.  Acts  iv.  19.  Rom.  xiii. 
12,  13,  and  Phil.  iv.  8. 

2.  The  singular  Favours  conferred  upon  us  by  God,  as  in  Acts  hi.  26. 
1  Cor.  vi.  20.     Eph.  iv.  32.     Til.  ii.  14. 

3.  The  Example  of  Christ.  Malt.  xi.  29.  Eph.  V.  2.  Rom.  xv.  2,  3. 
Phil.  ii.  3—5.     1  Pet.'  i.  I  r.. 

4.  The  Smictioiin  of  Duty  which  the  civil  relations  among  men  have 
received  from  God :  as  in  Horn.  xiii.  2.  4,  5.    Eph.  vi.  5—7.  0.    Col.  ill.  22. 

5.  The  R':gard  tphuh  Christians  oire  to  their  holy  profession.  Eph.  Iv. 
1—3.     I  Tlu'.ss.  Ii.  12.     Phil.  i.  27.     Tit.  ii.  10. 

6.  Tlie  Acceptahlcne.iti  of  true  Repentance,  and  the  assurance  of  pardon 
to  the  rfuilhj  pi  iiilenl. 

7.  T\w  Di cine  Assistance,  offered  to  support  men  in  tho  performance 
of  their  duty.  John  xiv.  16.  1  Cor.  ill.  13.  vi.  IG.  Luke  xl.  13.  2  Cor. 
Xlll.  14.     Uel).  Iv.  16. 

8.  Our  Jirlnlion  to  Heaven,  while  upon  earth.  Phil.  lit.  20.  1  PeL  il  11. 

9.  The  Jieicurda  and  I'unistinicnts  proclaimed  lu  Uie  GospeL 


THE  INSPIRATION  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES.  53 

All  these  sublime  lessons  of  morality  are  found  in  various 
parts  of  the  New  Testament.  They  enrich  the  divine  sermon 
on  the  mount ;  and  they  are  contained  in  the  excellent  para- 
bles delivered  by  Jesus  Christ;  they  are  also  to  be  found  in 
the  discourses  and  epistles  of  tlie  apostles.  Wherever  indeed 
we  open  the  Christian  volume,  we  may  find  some  direction, 
which,  if  properly  observed,  would  render  us  good  neighbours, 
good  members  of  society,  good  friends,  and  good  men.  Is  it 
possible,  then,  to  doubt  the  divine  original  of  a  system,  which 
furnishes  such  rules,  and  contemplates  so  glorious  an  object  ? 

All  these  sublime  moral  precepts  and  motives  are  found 
in  various  parts  of  the  New  Testament.  How  the  writers 
of  that  volume  should  be  able  to  draw  up  a  system  of 
morals,  which  the  world,  after  the  lapse  of  eighteen  cen- 
turies, cannot  improve,  while  it  perceives  numberless 
faults  in  those  of  the  philosophers  of  India,  Greece  and 
Rome,  and  of  the  opposers  of  revelation,  is  a  question  of 
fact,  for  which  the  candid  deist  is  concerned  to  account  in 
a  rational  way.  The  Christian  is  able  to  do  it  with  ease. 
The  Evangelists  and  the  Apostles  of  Jesus  Christ  "  spake 
as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Spirit." 


§  4. — On  the  Objections  of  Unbelievers  to  the  Doctrines  and  Morality  of 
the  Bible. 

Objection  I. — Some  of  the  peculiar  doctrines  which 
the  Scriptures  propound  to  our  belief,  are  mysterious  and 
contrary  to  reason  :  and,  where  mystery  begins,  religion 
ends. 

Answer. — This  assertion  is  erroneous :  for  nothing  is  so  mysterious  as 
the  eternity  and  self- existence  of  God;  yet,  to  believe  that  God  exists,  is 
the  foundation  of  all  religion.  We  cannot  comprehend  the  common  ope- 
rations of  nature ;  and  if  we  ascend  to  the  higher  departments  of  science 
— even  to  tlie  science  of  demonstration  itself,  the  mathematics — we  shall 
find  that  mysteries  exist  there. 

Mysteries  in  the  Christian  Religion,  instead  of  being  suspected,  should 
rather  be  regarded  as  a  proof  of  its  divine  origin  :  for,  if  nothing  more 
were  contained  in  the  New  Testament  than  w^e  previously  knew,  or 
nothing  more  than  we  could  easily  comprehend,  we  might  justly  doubt 
if  it  came  from  God,  and  whether  it  was  not  rather  a  work  of  man's 
device. 

Further,  the  mysteries  which  appear  most  contrary  to  reason,  are  closely 
connected  with  the  truths  and  facts  of  which  reason  is  convinced. 

Though  some  of  the  truths  revealed  in  the  Scriptures  are  mysterious, 
yet  the  tendency  of  the  most  exalted  of  its  mysteries,  is  practical.  If,  for 
instance,  we  cannot  explain  the  influences  of  the  Spirit,  happy  will  ilbe 
for  us,  nevertheless,  if  we  experience  that  the  "fruits  of  the  spirit  are 
love,  joy,  peace,  long-suffering,  gentleness,  goodnees,  faith,  meekness, 
temperaiice." 

5* 


54  INTERNAL  EVIDENCES  OF 

OiuECTioN  II. — The  scripture  doctrine  of  redemption 
is  inconsistent  with  the  ideas,  which  are  now  generally  re- 
ceived concerning  the  magnitude  of  creation. 

Answer. — The  comparative  dimension  of  our  world  is  of  no  account : 
If  it  be  large  enough  for  tlae  accomplishment  of  events,  which  are  suffi- 
cient to  occupy  the  minds  of  all  intelligences,  that  is  all  which  is  re- 
quired. 

Objection  III. — The  doctrine  of  a  future  judgment 
is    nprobable  :  and  the  two-fold  sanction  of  rewards  and 
jnishments  is  of  human  invention. 

Answer — It  is  but  reasonable,  that  the  same  person,  by  whom  God 
carried  on  his  merciful  design  of  recovering  mankind  from  a  state  of  sin, 
who  felt  our  infirmities,  and  was  tempted  as  we  are,  should  be  appointed 
the  final  judge  of  all  men,  and  the  dispenser  of  future  retribution. 

Lord  Bolingbroke  intimates,  that  the  notion  whereon  the  sanction  of 
future  rewards  and  punishment  is  founded,  savours  more  of  human  pas- 
sions than  of  justice  or  prudence;  and  that  it  implies,  that  the  proceed* 
ings  of  God  towards  men  in  this  life  are  unjust,  if  they  need  rectifying  in 
a  future  one.  But  the  present  life  is  a  slate  of  trials  to  fit  us  for  a  future 
and  better  condition  of  being.  Though  justice  requires  that  rewards  and 
punishments  should,  in  this  world,  be  proportioned  to  the  different  degrees 
of  virtue  and  vice;  facts  prove  that  this  is  not  the  case.  If  therefore 
there  be  no  recomi>ense  hereafter,  injustice  must  characterise  the  divine 
government,  and  the  Cliristian  doctrine  alone  vindicates  Uie  ways  of  Gotl 
to  man. 

Lord  Shaftesbury  argues  against  the  doctrine  of  future  rewards  and 
puni!?hmenis,  as  affording  a  mercenary  and  selfish  motive  to  virtue, 
which  ought  to  be  practised  because  it  i.s  good  and  amiable  in  itsetf  li 
will  however  be  seen,  that  this  is  not  the  case,  if  it  he  considered  that  the 
Christian  looks  for  his  reward,  only  to  higher  improvements  in  useful 
knowledge  and  moral  goodness,  and  tathe  exalted  enjoyments  which  re- 
sult from  these.  But  it  is  a  proper  reason  to  choose  virtue,  because  it 
will  make  us  happy  ;  for  man  has  a  natural  desire  of  life  and  happiness, 
and  a  fear  of  losing  them  ;  and  a  desire  of  well  being  may  conspire  with 
the  rest  in  the  discipline  of  the  mind,  and  assist  the  growth  of  more  libe- 
ral principles. 

Further,  when  this  respect  to  a  future  recompense  is  the  effect  of  a  de- 
liberate trust  in  the  Judge  of  the  universe,  an  acquiescence  in  his  govern- 
ment, and  a  belief  that  he  is  the  rewarder  of  such  as  faithfully  seek  him, 
and  disposes  us  to  well-doing,  it  becomes  religious  faith,  the  first  duty  of 
rational  beings,  and  a  firm  bond  of  virtue,  private,  social,  and  divine. 

Objection  IV. — Christianity  establishes  a  system  of 
priestcraft  and  spiritual  despotism  over  the  minds  and 
consciences  of  men. 

A.NswER.— Christianity  establishes  no  such  thing.  That  there  should  ?>e 
teachers  of  religion,  to  instruct  men  In  its  principles,  to  enforce  its  pre- 
cepts, (iiid  to  administer  its  consolations,  has  nothing  in  it  contrary  to  the 
fllne.-ysof  things,  and  the  public  good.  Tills  argument  aeijulres  adililionnl 
weight,  when  we  consider  the  qualifications  which  the  iNew  Testament 
requires  of  the  different  orders  of  Clirlstiau  ministers.  See  particularly 
1  Tin.  III.  1—7.  Iv.  11,  12.  16.  2  Cor.  vk  3.  2  Tim.  il  22.  24,  25.  1  Tiui. 
Iv    12,  13,  14.     I  Tim.  lil.  8—10. 

It  huH  however  been  said,  tnat  the  most  cxtravngnnt  claims  Ui  wealth 
and  i)ower  have  been  made  by  men,  who  call  themselves  mlnisrers  of  the 
Gospel.     But  wUh  Uicse  claims  Chrlstiauiiy  is  not  chargeable.     The  New 


THE  INSPIRATION  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES.  55 

Testament  establishes  the  support  of  the  ministers  of  religion  on  a  rea- 
sonable footing.  Is  it  thought  equitable,  that  those  who  teach  philosophy 
and  the  learned  languages  should  be  recompensed  for  their  labour  1  The 
Gospel  sets  the  maintenance  of  its  ministers  on  the  same  fooling  (see 
Luke  X.  7.  1  Cor.  ix.  11—14  ;)  but  it  does  not  countenance  in  ihein  any 
claim  of  either  power  or  wealth. 

Objection  V. — The  Gospel  prohibits  free  inquiry,  and 
demands  a  full  and  implicit  assent,  without  any  previous 
examination. 

Answer. — The  contrary  is  the  fact.  The  Gospel  not  only  invites  hut 
demands  investigation  :  free  inquiry  is  not  prejudicial,  but  in  the  highest 
degree  beneficial  to  Christianity,  whose  evidences  shine  the  more  clearly, 
in  proportion  to  the  rigour  with  which  they  are  examined. 

Objection  VI. — The  Morality  of  the  Bible  is  too  strict, 
and  lays  mankind  under  too  severe  restraints. 

Answer.— The  contrary  is  the  case :  for  the  morality  of  the  Bible  restrains 
us  only  from  what  would  be  hurtful  to  ourselves  or  to  others,  while  it 
allows  of  every  truly  rational,  sober,  and  humane  pleastire. 

Objection  VII. — Some  of  the  Moral  Precepts  of  Jesus 
Christ  are  unreasonable  and  impracticable. 

Answer. — A  candid  examination  of  a  few  of  the  precepts  objected  to, 
will  show  how  little  foundation  there  is  for  such  an  assertion.     For,    , 

1.  The  prohibition  of  anger,  in  Matt.  v.  22,  condemns  only  implacable 
anger, — sinful  anger  unrepented  of.  The  same  restriction  must  be  under- 
stood respecting  other  general  assertions  of  Jesus,  as  Matt.  x.  33,  which 
cannot  apply  to  Peter. 

2.  The  precept  of  Jesus  Christ  to  forgive  injuries,  has  been  asserted  to 
be  contrary  to  reason  and  nature. 

A  few  of  the  most  eminent  heathen  philosophers,  however,  have  given 
the  same  direction ;  particularly  Socrates,  Cicero,  Seneca,  and  Confucius. 

It  has  further  been  objected  that  this  precept  is  given  in  a  general  and 
indefinite  way :  whereas  there  are  certain  necessary  restrictions. 

Assuredly.  But  these  exceptions  are  so  plain,  that  they  will  always  be 
supposed,  and  consequently  need  not  to  be  specified.  The  Christian  reli- 
gion makes  no  alteration  in  the  natural  rights  of  mankind,  nor  does  it  for- 
bid necessary  self-defence,  or  seeking  legal  redress  of  injuries  in  cases 
where  it  may  be  expedient  to  restrain  violence  and  outrage.  The  substance 
of  what  it  recommends,  relates  chiefly  to  the  temper  of  the  mind. 

3.  Against  the  injunction  to  love  our  enemies,  it  has  been  argued,  "  Jf 
love  carry  with  it  complacence,  esteem,  and  friendship,  and  these  are  due 
to  all  men, — what  distinction  can  we  then  make  between  the  best  ajid  worst 
of  men  7" 

But,  in  this  precept,  as  in  all  moral  writings  "  love"  signifies  benevo- 
lence and  good  will ;  which  may  be  exercised  by  kind  actions  towards 
those  whom  we  cannot  esteem,  and  whom  we  are  even  obliged  to 
punish. 

4.  The  commandment  to  "  love  our  neighbour  as  ourselves,"  is  also  ob- 
jected to  as  unreasonable,  and  impossible  to  be  observed. 

In  moral  writings,  love  (as  we  have  just  noticed)  signifies  good  will  ex- 
pressing itself  In  the  conduct.  Now,  this  precept  of  Jesus  Christ  may  be 
understood, 

(1.)  As  enjoining  the  same  kind  of  affection  to  oiu  fellow  creature  as  to 
ourselves,  disposing  us  to  avoid  his  misery,  and  to  consult  his  happiness 
as  well  as  our  own.     Or, 

(2.)  It  may  require  us  to  love  our  neighbour  in  some  certain  proportion 
as  we  love  ourselves.    The  love  of  our  neigljt^our  must  bear  some  pro- 


56  INTERNAL  EVIDENCES  OP 

porllon  to  self-love,  ond  virtue  consists  in  the  due  proportion  of  ft.     Or, 

(3.)  The  precept  may  be  understood  of  an  equality  of  affection.  Moral 
obligation  can  extend  no  fUrther  than  to  natural  possibility.  Now,  we 
have  a  perception  of  our  own  Interests,  like  the  consciousness  of  our  own 
existence,  which  we  always  carry  about  with  us;  and  which,  m  lis  con- 
tinuation, kind,  and  degree,  seems  impossible  to  be  felt  with  respect  to  the 
hiterests  of  others.  Therefore,  were  we  to  love  our  neighbour  in  the  same 
degree  (so  far  as  this  is  possible)  as  we  love  ourselves,  yel  llie  care  of  our- 
selves would  not  be  neglected. 

The  precepts,— to  "  do  to  others  as  we  would  have  them  do  to  us,"  arid 
to  "  love  our  neighbour  as  ourselves," — are  not  merely  intelligible  and 
comprehensive  rules  :  but  they  also  furnish  the  means  of  determining  the 
particular  cases  which  are  included  under  them :  and  they  are  likewise 
useful  meaiis  of  moral  Improvement,  and  £ifford  a  good  lest  of  a  person's 
progress  In  benevolence. 

5.  The  command  to  believe  in  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  sanctions  by  which 
It  is  enforced, — "  he  that  belleveth  and  is  baptised,  shall  be  saved,  but  he 
that  believelh  not  shall  be  condemned,"  (Mark  xvl.  16,)— have  been  ob- 
jected against :  and  It  has  been  said  that  "  Faith,  considered  in  Itself,  can 
neither  be  a  virtue  nor  a  vice,  because  men  con  no  otherwise  believe  than 
as  things  appear  to  them." 

Yet,  tliutihey  appear  in  such  apartlcular  manner  to  the  understanding  of 
Individuals,  may  be  owing  entirely  to  themselves.  All  threaten Injrs,  more- 
over, must  be  understood  of  unbelievers,  who  had  sufficient  light  and  evi- 
de)ice  afforded  them,  and  who,  through  inattention,  neglect,  will'ul  preju- 
dice, or  from  corrupt  passions  and  vices  have  rejected  the  Gospel,  as  Christ 
himself  says  In  John  III.  19,  and  xv.  22. 

Objection  VIII. — Christianity  produces  a  timid  pas- 
sive spirit,  and  also  entirely  overlooks  the  generous  senti- 
ments of  friendship  and  patriotism. 

Answer  1.  Christianity  omits  precepts  founded  upon  false  principles, 
such  as  recommend  fictitious  virtues,  which,  however  admired  and  cele- 
brated,  are  productive  of  no  salutary  effects,  and  In  fact  are  no  virtues 
ot  all. 

Valour,  for  instance,  is  for  the  most  part  constitutional ;  and,  tehen  not 
under  the  control  of  true  religion,  so  far  is  it  from  producing  any  salutary 
effects  by  introducing  peace,  order,  or  happiness  into  society,  that  it  Is  the 
usual  perpetrator  of  all  the  violences,  which,  from  retaliated  injuries,  dis- 
tract the  world  with  bloodshed  and  devastation.  But,  though  Clnistianity 
exhibits  no  commendation  of  fictitious  virtues,  It  is  so  far  from  generating 
a  timid  spirit,  that,  on  the  contrary.  It  forms  men  of  a  singular  courage. 
It  teaches  ihem  to  be  afraid  of  offending  God,  and  of  doing  Injury  to  man; 
hut  It  labours  to  render  them  superior  to  every  other  fear.  The  lives  of 
Christians  have,  in  numberless  Instances,  displayed  the  efficacy  of  Its  di- 
vine principles,  wlilch  have  enabled  them  to  sustain  unexampled  active 
exertion,  persevering  labour,  and  patient  suffering. 

2.  With  regard  to  Friendship,  various  satisfactory  reasons  may  be  aB* 
Blgned  why  Jesus  Christ  did  not  enact  any  laws  concerning  It. 

[I.]  A  pure  and  sincere  friendship  must  be  a  mailer  of  choice,  and  re- 
luctant to  the  very  appearance  of  compulsion. 

[ii]  It  depends  upon  similarity  of  disposition,  and  coincidence  of 
eentiment  and  affection,  and  upon  a  variety  of  circumslances  not  within 
our  control,  or  our  choice. 

(ill.)  Partial  attachments,  which  usually  led  person?  to  prefer  their 
friends  to  the  public,  would  not  be  favourable  to  the  general  virtue  and 
happiness.  Hut  though  the  (io.'spel  makes  no  provision  for  friendship,  it 
does  not  i)rohlhit  tliat  connexion,  but  rather  sanctions  it  by  the  example 
Of  Christ  himself;  whose  aiiachraenl  to  Lazarus  and  lUa  family,  and  to 


INSPIRATION  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES.  57 

John  the  beloved  disciple,  may  satisfy  us  of  his  approbation  of  frieiid&hip 
both  as  a  duly  and  as  aii  enjoyment. 

3.  With  respect  to  Patriotism, — if  by  this  be  meant  a  bigoted,  selfish,  or 
fiery  love  of  our  country,  which  leads  us  to  sctk  its  aggrandisement,  re- 
gardless of  the  morality  of  the  ineans  by  which  that  is  accomplished,  it  is 
no  virtue. 

But  Jesus  Christ  virtually  established  the  duty  of  patriotism,  by  esta- 
blishing the  principle  from  which  it  flows,  viz.  the  universal  obligation 
of  justice  and  love ;  leading  us  to  do  good  unto  all  men,  but  e.«pt;cially 
unto  them  who  are  of  the  household  of  faith,  and  enforcing  more  tlicji 
ordinary  affection  between  husbands  and  wives,  parents  and  children, 
brethren  and  sisters.  In  all  which  cases  he  has  decided  that  every  adoi- 
tional  lie,  by  w^hich  man  is  connected  with  man,  is  an  obligation  to  aucii- 
tional  love.  Above  all,  Christ  himself,  by  his  own  conduct,  saiw;tioned, 
exemplified,  and  commanded  patriotism. 

Objection  IX. — The  Bible  is  the  most  immoral  book 
in  the  world. 

Answer.— A  candid  examination  of  the  morality  of  the  Scriptures,  most 
completely  refutes  this  assertion.  If,  indeed,  the  Bible  be  an  immoral!  ook, 
how  is  it  that  the  reading  of  this  boolt  should  have  reclaimed  millions 
from  immorality  7 — a  fact,  too  notorious  to  be  denied  by  any  impartial  ob- 
server. Further,  many  of  the  immoral  statements,  which  are  said  (l,ut 
which  cannot  be  proved)  to  exist  in  the  Bible,  are  founded  on  a  wilful  in- 
attention to  the  difference  which  exists  between  ancient  and  modern 
manners.  The  characteristic  of  modern  manners  is  the  free  intercourse 
of  the  two  sexes  in  the  daily  commerce  of  life  and  conversation.  Hence 
the  peculiar  system  of  modern  manners  :  hence  that  system  of  decorum, 
delicacy,  and  modesty  (fovuided  on  the  morality  of  Scripture)  which  be- 
long entirely  to  this  relation  of  the  sexes,  and  to  the  state  of  society  in 
which  it  exists.  But  in  the  ancient  world  there  was  nothing  of  this  in- 
tercourse. Be.>^ides,  the  immoral  actions  which  are  recorded  in  Scripture, 
ate  not  related  for  our  imitation,  but  for  our  caution. 

Objection.  X.  The  Bible  inculcates  a  spirit  of  intole- 
rance and  persecution. 

Answer. — The  religion  of  Jesus  Christ  has  been  represented  as  of  an  un- 
social, unsteady,  surly,  and  solitary  complexion,  tending  to  destroy  every 
other  but  itself.  It  does,  indeed,  tend  to  destroy  eveiy  other,  but  in  the 
same  manner  as  truth  in  every  subject  tends  to  "destroy  falsehood,  that  is, 
by  ratioval  conviction.  Jesus  Christ  uniformly  discountenanced  bigotry 
and  intolerance  in  his  disciples.  Distinctions  of  nations,  sects,  or  parties, 
as  such,  to  him  were  nothing:  distinctions  of  truth  and  falsehood,  right 
and  wrong,  were  to  him  every  thing. 

The  moderation  and  liberality  of  pagan  governments  have  been  eulo- 
gised by  the  opposers  of  Christianity,  who  have  asserted  that  persecution 
for  religion  was  indebted  fur  its  first  rise  to  the  Christian  systeni.  The 
very  reverse  is  the  fact.  Ancient  historj^  records  numerous  instances  of 
pagan  governments  that  persecuted  the  professors  of  other  religions. 

Thus,  the  Athenians  put  Socrates  to  death,  on  account  of  his  religious 
tenets;  and  Antiochus  Epiphanes  exercised  the  most  horrid  cruelties 
against  the  Jews  for  their  religion.  (1  Mac.  i.  40—64,)  Tiberius  prohibited 
the  Egyptian  and  Jewish  worship,  banished  the  Jews  from  Rome,  and  re- 
strained the  worship  of  the  Druids  in  Gaul,  while  Claudius  had  recourse 
to  penal  laws,  to  abolish  their  religion.  Domitian  and  Vespasian  banished 
the  philosophers  from  Rome,  and  the  former  confined  some  of  them  in  the 
islands,  and  whipped  or  put  others  to  death.  The  violent  means  and  cruel 
persecutions,  which  were  adopted  by  pagan  governors  to  aiinihilate  the 
Christian  religion,  for  three  hundred  years  after  its  first  origin,  are  too 
well  known  to  be  controverted. 

Men,  indeed,  calling  themselves  Christians,  have  cruelly  persecuted 


gQ  INTERNAL  EVIDENCES  OF 

others;  but  the  Gospel  does  not  authorise  such  a  conduct,  and  therefore 
Is  not  chargeable  with  it.  And  facts  and  experience  have  proved  (par- 
ticularly in  France  during  the  revolution,)  that  not  the  friends  but  the 
enemies  of  the  Gospel,— not  sincere  believers,  but  apostates  and  atheists, — 
have  been  the  most  cruel  oppressors  and  persecutors,  and  the  greatest 
enemiejs  both  of  civil  and  religious  liberty. 


Section  II. — The  wonderful  Harmony  and  intimate  Connexion  subsisting 
between  all  the  Purts  of  Scripture,  are  a  further  proof  of  its  Divine 
Authority  and  Original. 

Most  of  the  writers  of  the  Scriptures  lived  at  very  dif- 
ferent times,  and  in  distant  places,  through  the  long  period 
of  sixteen  hundred  years,  so  that  there  could  be  no  con- 
federacy or  collusion :  and  yet  their  relations  agree  with, 
and  mutually  support,  each  other. 

The  same  essential  a<rreemcnt,  and  the  same  dependency 
of  one  upon  another,  oljtains  also  among  the  chief  practical 
precepts,  as  well  as  between  the  doctrines  and  precepts 
of  Christianity. 

Objection. — There  are  contradictions  to  morality  as 

well  as  among  the  different  writers  themselves. 

Answer.— These  contradictions,  as  they  are  termed,  are  seeming  only, 
and  not  real :  they  perplex  only  superficial  readers.  Nor  is  there  a  sin- 
gle instance,  wliich  does  not  admit  of  a  rational  solution,  by  attending 
to  the  original  languages,  and  to  the  manners,  customs.  Ace,  that  ob- 
tained in  the  countries  where  scenes  mentioned  in  Uie  Scriptures  were 
situated. 


Section  III. — The  Preservation  of  the  Scriptures  a  Proof  of  their  Truth  and 
Divine  Oiigin. 

To  nothing,  indeed,  but  the  mijrhty  power  of  God,  can 
we  ascribe  their  preservation,  amid  all  the  attempts  made 
to  annihilate  them. 


Section  IV. —The  tendency  of  the  Scriptures  to  promote  the  present  and 
eternal  Happiness  of  Mankind,  constitutes  anoUier  Proof  of  their  Divine 
Inspiration. 

Were  all  men  sincerely  and  cordially  to  believe  the 
Bible  to  be  a  divine  revelation,  and  to  obey  its  precepts, 
how  would  the  moral  face  of  the  world  be  changed  ! 
Wherever  it  has  been  thus  embraced,  the  most  beneficial 
effects  have  been  the  result. 


THE  INSPIRATION  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES.  59 

I.  The  Writings  of  the  earliest  Professors  of  Christi- 
anity prove,  that  the  first  converts  were  reformed  charac- 
ters, 

1.  For  testimonies  from  the  New  Testament,  compeure  Rom.  vi.  21,  22, 
1  Cor.  vi.  9—11.     1  Pet.  iv.  3,  4. 

2.  The  various  Christian  Apologists,  who  were  compelled  to  vindicate 
their  character,  bear  ample  testimony  to  their  exemplary  lives  and  con- 
versation. Among  these,  the  attestations  of  Justin  Martyr,  Athenagoras, 
Tertullian,  Minucius  Felix,  Origen,  and  I.actanlius,  are  particularly  wor- 
thy of  notice. 

Though  we  cannot  expect,  from  Pagans,  direct  testimonies  to  the  vir- 
tues of  men  whom  they  persecuted  ;  yet  the  works  of  heathen  writers  in- 
cidenily  furnish  proofs  of  their  innocence  and  worth.  Pliny,  for  instance, 
in  his  memorable  letter  to  Trajan,  says,  that  the  great  crime  of  the  Chris- 
tians consisted, — not  in  the  commission  of  any  wickedness,  but— in  as- 
sembling together  on  a  stated  day  before  light,  to  sing  hymns  to  Christ  as 
God.  The  apostate  emperor  Julian,  also,  in  his  epistle  to  an  heathen 
pontiff,  commended  their  charitj'  and  other  virtues  to  the  imitation  of  the 
pagans.  If  the  Gospel  were  merely  the  contrivauice  of  man,  the  virtues 
and  holiness  of  the  first  Christians  would  be  an  inexphcable  fact. 

II.  A  Summary  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  Christianity 

on  SOCIETY  IN  GENERAL. 

The  benevolent  spirit  of  the  Gospel  has  served  as  a  bond  of  union  be- 
tween independent  nations,  and  has  broken  down  the  partition  which  se- 
parated Heathens  and  Jews  ;  has  abated  their  prejudices,  and  has  render- 
ed them  more  liberal  towards  each  other.  Further,  It  has  checked  pride 
and  promoted  humility  and  forgiveness;  has  rendered  its  sincere  profes- 
sors just  and  honest,  and  it  has  inspired  them  with  firmness  under  perse- 
cution. 

The  benign  influence  of  the  Gospel  has  descended  into  families,  and 
abolished  polygamy  ;  has  diminished  the  pressure  of  private  tyranny , 
has  exalted  and  im.proved  the  female  character;  has  improved  eveiy  do- 
mestic endearment;  given  tenderness  to  the  parent,  humanity  to  the 
master,  respect  to  superiors,  and  to  inferiors  ease  :  numberless  charitable 
institutions  unknown  to  the  heathen  world,  have  sprtmg  from  Christi- 
anity. 

III.  Beneficial  Effects  of  Christianity  on  the  political 
STATE  of  the  World. 

A  milder  sj'stem  of  civil  government,  and  a  better  administration  of 
civil  justice,  have  been  introduced  :  the  horrors  of  war  have  been  miti- 
gated ;  and  the  measures  of  governments  have  been  directed  to  their 
proper  objects. 

IV.  Beneficial  Effects  of  Christianity  on  Literature 
and  the  Fine  Arts. 

Christianity  has  been  the  means  of  preserving  and  disseminating  moral, 
classical,  and  theological  knowledge  in  every  nation  where  it  has  been 
established.  The  Law,  the  Gospel,  the  comments  on  them,  and  the  works 
of  the  fathers,  were  written  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  or  Latin,  so  that  the  know- 
ledge of  these  languages  became  necessary  to  every  man,  who  wished 
to  become  an  intelligent  Christian.  The  Christian  doctrines  and  precepts 
being  contained  in  books,  the  use  of  letters  became  necessary  to  its  teach 
ers  ;  and  by  them  was  learning  preserved.  Modern  opposers  of  revelation 
ascribe  all  our  improvements  to  philosophy  ;  but  it  was  religion,  the  kb- 
LiGioN  OF  CHRIST,  that  took  the  lead.    The  reformers  opened  to  us  the  Scrip- 


1^  INTERNAL  EVIDENCES  OF 

tures,  and  broke  all  those  fetters  which  shackled  human  reason.  Phllo* 
si.pliy  crept  humbly  in  her  tiain,  and  now  un^atefully  claims  all  the 
honour  and  praise  to  herself.  Luther,  Melancthon,  and  Cranmer,  preced- 
ed J-nnl  IJacon,  Boyle,  Newton,  and  Locke. 

Christianity  is  not  to  be  cliarged  with  the  crimes  of  those  who  have  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Christians,  while  their  conduct  has  shown  that  they 
were  utterly  destitute  of  every  Christian  sentiment.  It  is  not  peculiar  to 
the  Christian  revelation,  that  it  has  sometimes  furnished  a  pretext  for  in- 
troducing the  very  evils  and  oppressions  which  it  was  designed  to  remedy. 

The  mischiefs,  which,  through  the  corrupt  passions  of  men,  have  been 
the  accidental  consequences  of  Christianity,  ought  not  to  be  imputed  to 
its  spirit.  Nothing  is  better  calculated  to  diffuse  real  comfort,  peace,  and 
happint-ss  throughout  the  world;  and  a  candid  comparison  of  the  morals 
t)f  professing  Christians  throughout  the  world,  with  those  of  heathen  na- 
tions in  a  similar  stage  of  society,  will  demonstrate  the  beneficial  effects 
of  Cluistianily. 

V.  Historical  facts  attest  the  benefits  conferred  by  the 
Gospel  on  the  world. 

Wherever  Christian  Missionaries  have  gone,  the  most  barbarous  heathen 
nations  have  become  civilised.  The  ferocious  have  become  mild  ;  those, 
who  prowled  about  for  plunder,  have  acquired  settled  property,  as  well 
as  a  relish  for  domestic  happiness.  Persons,  who  dwelt  in  caves  or  huts 
have  learnt  from  missionaries  the  art  of  building ;  they  who  fed  on  raw 
flesli  have  applied  to  agriculture ;  men  who  were  clothed  in  skins  and 
were  ignorant  of  manufactures,  have  become  acquainted  with  the  com- 
forts of  apparel ;  and  the  violent  and  rapacious  have  renounced  their  ra- 
pine and  plunder. 

The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Germany,  Hungary,  Scythia,  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Britain  and  Ireland,  as  well  as 
the  modern  inabitants  of  North  and  South  America,  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  Greenland,  South  and  West  Africa,  are  all  illustrious  monuments 
of  the  blessed  effects  produced  by  Christianity. 

VI,  The  PRACTICAL  EFFICACY  of  Christianity, 

Especially  when  contrasted  with  the  effects  of  infidelity,  is  seen  more 
conspicuously  and  more  satisfactorily  in  the  holy,  useful,  and  exemplary 
lives  of  real  Christians  in  the  private  walks  of  life,  and  in  the  peculiar 
supports  and  consolations  which  they  enjoy  under  adversity  and  afflic- 
tions, and  in  the  prospect  of  futurity :  while  infidelity  offers,  and  can 
offer,  no  ground  or  prospect  of  support  to  its  unhappy  professors. 


Section  V.— The  peculiar  Advantages,  possessed  by  the  Christian  Relicrion 
over  all  other  Religions,  a  demonstrative  Evidence  of  its  Divine  Origin 
and  authority. 

It  is  the  peculiar  and  distinguishing  excellency  of  tiie 
Christian  Religion,  that  it  possesses  advantages  wiiich  no 
other  religions  or  revelations  have  :  at  the  same  time  it 
has  none  of  the  defects  by  which  tiiey  are  characterised. 

No  other  religions  are  confirmed  by  ancient  prophecies, 
or  by  the  blood  of  an  infinite  ninnher  of  sensihlr  and  in- 
telligcnt  marti/rs,  who  voluntarily  sufiered  death  in  defence 
of  what  they  had  seen  and  believed.     And  although  other 


Ql  THE  INSPIRATION  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 

religions  may  pretend  to  be  confirmed  by  signs  and  re- 
markable events,  (as  the  Romans  ascribed  the  success  of 
their  arms  to  their  deities,  and  the  Mohammedans  consider 
the  successes  of  their  prophet  as  a  proof  of  the  divinity  of 
his  mission  ;)  yet  it  is  not  prosperity  or  adversity  simply 
considered^  but  prosperity  or  adversity  as  foretold  hy  God 
or  his  prophets^  which  is  a  certain  character  of  true  re- 
ligion. 

Nor  has  the  Christian  Religion  any  of  those  defects,  by 
which  other  religions  are  characterised.  It  is  not  design- 
ed for  the  satisfaction  of  the  carnal  and  worldly  appetites 
of  men,  as  that  of  the  Jews,  who  aspire  after  temporal 
prosperity  and  worldly  pomp  ;  nor  is  it  a  medley  like  that 
of  the  ancient  Samaritans,  made  up  of  a  mixture  of  the 
Jewish  and  Pagan  religions  ;  nor  has  it  any  of  the  faults 
or  extravagant  superstitions  of  the  various  religions  of  the 
heathen  nations,  ancient  or  modern. 

The  superiority  of  the  Christian.  Religion  over  every 
other  is  particularly  evident  in  the  following  respects  : 

I.  In  its  Perfection. 

Other  religions,  as  being  principally  of  human  invention  and  institu- 
tion, were  formed,  by  degrees,  fioni  the  diflferent  imaginations  of  several 
persons,  who  successfully  made  such  additions  or  alterations  as  they 
thought  convenient.  But  it  is  not  so  with  the  Christian  Religion  :  which 
was  wholly  delivered  by  Christ,  is  entirely  contained  in  each  of  the  Gos- 
pels, and  even  in  each  epistle  of  the  apostles. 

II.  In  its  Openness. 

other  religions  durst  not  show  themselves  openly,  and  therefore  were 
veiled  over  with  a  mysterious  silence,  and  an  affected  darkness.  But  the 
Christian  Religion  requires  no  veil  to  cover  it,  no  mysterious  silence,  no 
dissimulation  or  disguise  ;  although  it  proposes  to  us  such  objects  as  are 
contrary  to  our  prejudices  and  received  opinions. 

III.  In  its  Adaptation  to  the  Capacities  of  all  Men. 

In  heathen  countries,  the  philosophers  always  derided  the  religion  of 
the  vulgar ;  and  the  vulgar  understood  nothing  of  the  religion  of  the  phi- 
losophers But  the  Christian  Religion  is  alike  suited  to  the  learned  and 
to  the  unlearned,  having  a  divine  efficacy  ;  and  an  agreeable  power  suit- 
able to  all  hearts  ;  and  it  is  most  wonderfully  adapted  to  those  habits  and 
sentiments  which  spring  up  in  proportion  as  knowledge  and  refinement 
"Advance. 

IV.  In  the  Spirituality  of  its  Worship. 

The  heathen  worship  was  corporeal  and  grossly  sensual,  both  in  its 
object  and  in  its  rites.  But  the  Christian  Religion  gives  us  for  the  object 
of  out  worship,— not  a  God  in  human  form,— but  a  God  who  is  a  Spirit, 
whom  it  teaches  us  to  honour  not  with  a  carnal  but  with  a  spiritual  wor- 
ship.   (John  iv.  24.) 


02  INTERNAL  EVIDENCE  OF 

V.  In  its  Opposition  to  the  Spirit  of  the  World. 

While  all  other  religions  induce  men  to  seek  after  the  pleasures  and 
profits  of  the  world,  in  the  worship  of  God  ;  the  Christian  Religion  makes 
us  glorify  God  by  renouncing  the  world,  and  teaches  us  that  we  must 
either  glorify  God,  at  the  expense  of  worldly  pleasures,  or  possess  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  world  with  the  loss  of  our  religion. 

VI.  In  its  Humiliation  of  man,  and  Exaltation  of  the 
Deity. 

All  false  religions  debase  the  Deity  and  exalt  man  :  but  the  Christian 
Religion  debases  man  and  exalts  the  Deity. 

VII.  In  its  Restoration  of  Order  to  the  world. 

The  heathen  religions  degraded  their  deities  to  an  equality  with  them- 
selves, and  elevated  four-footed  beasts,  fowls  of  the  air,  and  creeping 
things, — yea,  even  their  own  vices  and  imperfections,  to  the  rank  of  gods. 
But  the  Christian  Religion  alone  restores  that  order  which  ought  to  be 
established  in  the  world,  by  submitting  everything  to  the  power  of  man, 
that  he  might  submit  himself  to  the  will  of  God. 

VIII.  In  its  Tendency  to  eradicate  all  evil  passions 
from  the  heart. 

Other  religions  chiefly  tend  to  flatter  the  corrupt  desires  and  propensi- 
ties of  men.  But  the  Christian  Religion  tends  to  eradicate  those  desires 
and  propensities  from  our  hearts,  and  teaches  us  utterly  to  renounce 
them. 

IX.  In  its  Contrariety  to  the  covetousness  and  ambi- 
tion of  mankind,  and  in  its  aversion  to  policy,  and  corrup- 
tion, all  of  which  were  promoted  by  other  religions. 

X.  In  its  Restoration  of  the  Divine  Image  to  Man. 

Other  religions  would  have  God  to  bear  the  image  of  weak  and  sinful 
man  ;  but  the  Christian  Religion  teaches  us,  that  men  ought  to  bear  tlie 
image  of  God,  which  is  a  most  powerful  motive  to  holiness. 

XI.  In  its  Mighty  effects. 

False  religions  were  the  irregular,  confused  productions  of  the  politest 
and  ablest  men  of  those  times;  whereas  the  Christian  Religion  is  a  won- 
derful composition,  which  seems  to  proceed  only  from  the  most  simple 
and  ignorant  sort  of  people;  and,  at  the  same  time,  is  such  as  evinces 
that  it  viust  have  for  its  principle  the  God  of  holiness  and  love. 

To  conclude  this  argument : — if  we  contrast  the  advan- 
tages, wiiich  infidelity  and  Cliristiunity  re.spectively  afiord 
10  tliose  who  embrace  them,  we  sliall  perceive  the  evident 
superiority  of  tiie  latter.  Tiie  deist  is  not  hapi)i('r,  or 
more  useful,  in  society,  than  tiie  real  Christian,  nor  cnnhe 
look  into  futurity  with  more  composure.  But  the  latter  is 
both  happy  in  himself,  and  useful  in  his  day,  and  he  looks 
forward  to  futurity  with  humble  and  holy  tranquillity.  At 
least,  he  is  as  safe  in  his  deatli  as  any  of  the  children  of 
men.     The  deist,  on  the  contrary,  by  rejecting  all  moral 


THE  INSPIRATION  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES,  63 

evidence,  forfeits  all  things,  and  gains  nothing ;  while 
the  Christian  hazards  nothing,  and  gains  all  things. 


Section  VI. — Inability  to  answer  all  Objections,  no  just  Cause  for  reject- 
ing the  Scriptures.— Unbelievers  in  Divine  Revelation  more  credulous 
than  Christiana 

Even  though  all  the  difficulties  which  are  alleged  to  exist 
in  the  Sacred  Writings  could  not  be  accounted  for,  yet 
this  would  be  no  just  or  sufficient  cause,  why  we  should 
reject  the  Scriptures  ;  because  objections  are,  for  the  most 
part,  impertinent  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  ad- 
duced ;  and  if  they  were  pertinent,  yet,  unless  they  could 
confute  that  evidence,  they  ought  not  to  determine  us 
against  the  Bible.  If  the  various  arguments  by  which 
our  Religion  appears  to  be  true,  cannot  be  disproved  (and 
disproved  they  cannot  be,)  all  the  objections  which  can  be 
conceived  must  proceed  from  some  mistake  ;  and  those 
arguments,  together  with  the  conclusions  deduced  from 
them,  ought  not  to  be  rejected  on  account  of  the  objec- 
tions, but  such  objections  ought  to  he  rejected  on  account 
of  the  arguments.  There  is  no  science  without  its  diffi- 
culties, and  it  is  not  pretended  that  theology  is  without 
them.  But  difficulties  can  never  alter  the  nature  of 
things,  and  make  that  which  is  true  to  become  false. 

To  a  considerate  mind,  all  the  objections  which  can  be 
invented  against  the  Scriptures,  cannot  seem  nearly  so 
great  as  that  which  arises  from  infidelity,  from  the  suppo- 
sition that  God  should  not  at  all  reveal  himself  to  man- 
kind ;  or  that  the  heathen  oracles,  or  the  Koran  of  Mo- 
hammed should  be  of  divine  revelation. 

Nothing  is  more  frequent  than  the  charge  of  superstition 
and  credulity,  which  is  brought  by  modern  unbelievers 
against  Christianity  :  and  yet  this  charge  attaches  with  no 
small  force  to  the  opposers  of  revelation.  For  it  is  much 
more  easy  to  believe  the  facts  recorded  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, than  to  suppose  them  false,  and  believe  the  absurd 
consequences  which  must  follow  from  such  a  supposition. 
It  is  much  more  credible  that  God  should  work  a  miracle 
for  the  establishment  of  a  useful  system  of  religion,  than 
that  the  first  Christians  should  act  against  every  principle 
that  is  natural  to  man. 


64 


RECAPITULATION. 


They,  who  will  not  be  convinced  by  the  present  evi- 
dence of  the  truth  and  certainty  of  the  Christian  Reli- 
gion, would  not  be  convinced  by  any  other  evidence 
whatever. 

No  man  of  reason  can  pretend  to  say,  but  that  God 
may  require  us  to  take  notice  of  some  things  at  our  peril, 
to  inquire  into  them,  and  to  consider  them  thorouglilv. 
And  the  pretence  of  want  of  greater  evidence,  which  is 
sometimes  made,  will  not  excuse  carelessness  or  unreason- 
able prejudices,  when  God  has  vouchsafed  to  us  all  that 
evidence,  which  was  either  fit  for  him  to  grant,  or  reason- 
able for  men  to  desire,  or  of  which  the  nature  of  the  thing 
itself,  that  was  to  be  proved,  was  capable. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

HECAPITULATION. — MORAL   ftUALIFICATIONS  FOR   THE    STUDY   OF   THE 
SCRIPTURES. 

I.  Such  are  the  principal  proofs  for  the  genuineness, 
authenticity,  credibility,  and  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures :  and  taking  the  whole  together,  every  candid  in- 
quirer must  be  convinced  that  we  have  every  possible  evi- 
dence for  their  truth  and  divinity,  which  can  be  reasonably 
expected  or  desired.  How  absolutely  necessary  a  reve- 
lation was,  to  make  known  to  mankind  the  proper  object 
of  their  worship,  and  to  communicate  to  them  a  just  rule 
of  life,  is  manifest  from  the  deplorable  state  of  religion 
and  morals  in  the  Heathen  world,  both  ancient  and 
modern. 

II.  The  manner  in  which  the  sacred  Scriptures  have 
been  transmitted  to  us,  their  language  and  style,  together 
with  the  minute  circumstantiality  of  tlie  facts  and  doctrines 
recorded  in  them,  added  to  the  moral  impossibility  of  im- 
posing forged  writings  upon  mankind — are  all  indisputable 
proofs  of  their  Genuineness  and  Authenticity. 

III.  Equally  satisfactory  is  the  evidence  for  the  Credi- 
bility of  the  writers.  For  they  had  a  perfect  knowledge 
of  the  subjects  which  they  have  related,  and  their  moral 
character  was  never  impeached  by  their  keenest  opponents  ; 
their  accounts  were  published  among  the  people,  who  wit- 


RECAPITULATION.  g5 

nessed  the  events  which  they  had  recorded,  and  who  could 
easily  have  detected  falsehood  if  any  such  there  had  been, 
but  who  did  not  attempt  to  question  either  the  reality  of 
those  facts  or  the  fidelity  of  the  narrators ;  there  is  an 
entire  harmony  between  the  Sacred  Writers  and  profane 
history,  both  natural  and  civil ;  and  the  reality  of  the 
principal  facts  related  in  the  Bible,  is  perpetuated  and 
commemorated  by  monuments  that  subsist  to  this  day  in 
every  country,  where  either  Jews  or  Christians  are  to  be 
found. 

IV.  And  that  the  Scriptures  are  not  merely  entitled  to 
be  received  as  credible,  but  also  as  containing  the  reveal- 
ed will  of  God, — in  other  words,  that  they  are  divinely 
inspired, — we  have  evidence  of  various  kinds  amounting 
to  moral  demonstration  :  for,  on  the  one  hand,  their  sacred 
origin  is  evinced  by  the  most  illustrious  external  attesta- 
tions, viz.  miracles  and  prophecy,  which  carry  with  them 
the  most  manifest  proofs  of  a  divine  interposition  ;  and 
which  it  cannot  reasonably  be  supposed  that  God  would 
ever  give,  or  permit  to  be  given,  to  an  imposture.  And, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  Scriptures  have  the  most  excellent 
internal  characters  of  truth  and  goodness,  in  the  sublimity, 
excellence,  and  sanctity  of  the  system  of  doctrines  and 
morals  which  they  announce, — in  the  harmony  and  con- 
nexion that  subsist  between  all  the  parts  of  which  they 
consist,  in  the  preservation  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and 
in  their  admirable  tendency  (which  is  shown  by  its  effects 
wherever  the  Scriptures  are  cordially  and  sincerely  be- 
lieved) to  promote  the  glory  of  God  and  the  good  of  man- 
kind, and  the  cause  of  virtue  and  righteousness  in  the 
world,  and  to  prepare  men,  by  a  life  of  faith  and  holy 
obedience  upon  earth,  for  the  eternal  enjoyment  of  God 
in  Heaven ; — together  with  the  peculiar  advantages  pos- 
sessed by  the  Christian  Religion  over  all  other  religions. 

On  all  these  accounts  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  thank- 
fully to  be  received  and  embraced,  as  the  word  of  God, 
and  as  the  rule  of  Christian  faith  and  practice.  "  And  till 
I  can  see  the  evidence  of  them  disproved,  or  the  religion 
of  Christ  demonstrated  to  be  irrational  and  absurd,  I  am 
determined,  by  the  grace  of  God,  to  hold  fast  my  profes- 
sion to  the  end,  seeking  after  the  kingdom  of  glory  by  the 
practice  of  that  righteousness  which  prepares  for,   and 

6* 


m 


THE  STUDY  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


leads  to  it,  in  a  firm  dependence  upon  that  comfijrtable 
declaration  of  Jesus  Christ :  T/tat  God  so  loved  the  icorld 
that  WHOSOEVER  believetk  in  him  should  not  perish^  but 
have  everlasting  life.'*''* 

Since  the  Holy  Scriptures  contain  all  things  necessary 
to  salvation,  it  be-comes  the  indispensable  duty  of  all,  care- 
fully and  constantly  to  peruse  these  sacred  oracles,  that 
through  them  we  may  become  j^cr/ec^,  thoroughly  furnish- 
ed to  every  good  work,  (2  Tim.  iii.  17.)  This,  indeed,  is 
not  only  agreeable  to  the  divine  command — Search  the 
Scriptures,  (John  v.  39,)  and  to  the  design  of  the  Sacred 
Writings,  but  is  further  commended  by  the  practice  of  the 
Church  in  every  age,  and  by  the  divine  promise  to  all  true 
believers,  that  they  shall  all  be  taught  of  God,  (Isa. 
liv.  13.)  The  circumstances  of  every  individual  must  re- 
gulate the  portion  of  time,  that  ought  daily  to  be  devoted 
to  this  important  study  ;  which  should  be  undertaken  with 
devout  simplicity  and  humility,  and  prosecuted  with  dili- 
gence and  attention,  with  a  willingness  to  resort  to  all 
necessary  helps  for  advancement  in  the  truth,  and  for 
security  against  error.  To  these  qualifications,  especially, 
should  be  added  prayer  for  divine  aid  and  teaching,  toge- 
ther with  a  sincere  desire  to  know  and  perform  the  will  of 
God,  and,  laying  aside  all  prejudice,  to  follow  the  Scrip- 
tures wherever  conviction  may  lead  our  minds  :  for  it  is 
indubitable  that  persons  of  piety,  who  are  anxiously  desi- 
rous of  the  knowledge  of  divine  truth,  are  aided  by  the 
Spirit  of  God,  in  searching  out  the  meaning  of  Scripture, 
particularly  in  such  subjects  as  have  a  special  reference  to 
faith  and  religious  practice. 

•  Bishop  Wtttson's  Tracts,  vol.  Iii.  p.  484. 


67 


PART  II. 


ON  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY,  CRITICISM,  AND  INTERPRETATION  OF 
THE    SCRIPTURES. 


BOOK  I.— ON   THE   LITERARY   HISTORY  AND   CRITICISM   OF  THE 
SCRIPTURES. 

0 


CHAPTER  I. 

ON  THE  ORIGINAL  LANGUAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 

Section  I.— On  the  Hebrew  Language,  and  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch. 

I.  Antiquity  of  the  Hebrew  Language. — In  this 
language  the  Old  Testament  is  written,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  words  and  passages  in  the  Chaldsean  dia- 
lect, which  occur  in  Jer.  x.  11.  Dan.  ii.  4,  to  the  end 
of  vii.  and  Ezra  iv.  8,  to  vi.  19,  and  vii.  12 — 17.  It 
derived  its  name  from  the  root  "i::;;  (aher)  to  pass 
over :  whence  Abraham  was  denominated  the  Hebrew, 
(Gen.  xiv.  13,)  having  passed  over  the  Euphrates,  to 
come  into  the  land  of  Canaan.  The  shortness  of  its  words, 
the  descriptive  character  of  the  names  of  places,  of  ani- 
mals, and-  of  nations,  as  well  as  of  the  names  given  to 
heathen  deities,  (as  Jove,  which  is  deduced  from  Jehovah, 
Vulcan  from  Tubal-cain,  &c.)  together  with  the  traces  of 
Hebrew,  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  Chaldee,  Syriac, 
Arabic,  Persian,  and  other  languages; — all  combine  to 
prove  that  Hebrew  is  the  original  of  all  the  languages  or 
dialects  which  have  been  spoken  in  the  world.  The  know- 
ledge of  this  language  was  very  widely  diffused  by  means 
of  the  commercial  connexions  of  the  Phoenician  mer- 
chants. 

The  Hebrew  language  has  had  its  several  ages  or  de- 
grees of  purity.  Its  golden  age  was  the  period  from  the 
time  of  Moses  to  that  of  David ;  its  silver  age  was  the 
interval  between  the  reigns  of  Solomon  and  Hezekiah, 
or  Manasseh ;  the  iron  age,  between  that  period  and  the 


^  ORIGINAL  LANGUAGES 

70  years'  captivity  in  Babylon  :  after  which  the  Jews  for 
a  short  time  spoke  a  mixed  dialect  of  Chaldee  and  He- 
brew, and  ultimately  lost  it.  The  Priests  and  Levites, 
however,  continued  to  cultivate  it  to  the  time  of  Christ, 
as  a  learned  language,  that  they  might  be  enabled  to  ex- 
pound the  law  and  the  prophets  to  the  people  ;  which  last 
period  has  been  termed  the  leaden  age. 

II.  Antiquity  of  the  Hebrew  characters. — The  twen- 
ty-two characters,  now  in  use,  are  of  a  square  form,  and 
are  generally  ascribed  to  Ezra,  who  transcribed  the  an- 
cient characters  of  the  Hebrews  into  the  square  characters 
of  the  Chaldaeans,  since  which  time  the  Samaritan  or  an- 
cient Hebrew  character  has  fallen  into  disuse. 

III.  Origin  of  the  Samaritans. — 

The  Samaritans,  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
were  descended  from  an  intermixture  of  the  ten  tribes 
with  the  Gentile  nations.  This  origin  rendered  them 
odious  to  the  Jews,  who  refused  to  acknowledge  them  as 
Jewish  citizens,  or  to  permit  them  to  assist  in  rebuilding 
the  Temple,  after  their  return  from  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity. In  consequence  of  this  rejection  as  well  as  of 
other  causes  of  dissension,  the  Samaritans  erected  a  tem- 
ple on  Mount  Gerizim,  and  instituted  sacrifices  according 
to  the  prescriptions  of  the  Mosaic  law.  Hence  arose  that 
inveterate  schism  and  enmity  between  the  two  nations,  so 
frequently  mentioned  or  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament. 
The  Samaritans  (who  still  exist  but  are  greatly  reduced  in 
numbers)  reject  all  the  sacred  books  of  the  Jews  except 
the  Pentateuch,  or  five  books  of  Moses,  of  which  they 
preserve  copies  in  the  ancient  Hebrew  characters  :  these 
agree  in  all  material  points  with  our  present  copies,  which 
were  those  of  the  Jews,  and  thus  prove  that  the  important 
books  of  Moses  have  been  transmitted  to  us  uncorrupted, 
in  any  thing  material. 

II.  The  ^iiw  differences  that  actually  exist  between  the 
Samaritan  and  Hebrew  Pentateuchs,  may  be  satisfactorily 
accounted  for  by  the  usual  sources  of  various  readings, 
viz.  the  negligence  of  copyists,  the  confounding  of  similar 
letters,  transposition  of  letters,  &c.  The  Samaritan  Pen- 
tateuch is  of  great  importance  in  establishing  correct  read- 
ings.    Two  versions  of  it  are  extant.  '4.     'v,, 

1.  The  Samaritan  Version,  made  in  the  Aiiy|i^;9^;^tip0 


OF  SCRIPTURE.  69 

ject  (which  is  intermediate  between  the  Chaldee  and  the 
Syriac  languages,)  by  an  unknown  author  in  Samaritan 
characters  before  the  schism  took  place  between  the  Jews 
and  Samaritans.  It  is  close,  and  faithful  to  the  original. 
2.  An  Arabic  Version,  in  Samaritan  Characters,  which 
was  made  by  Abu  Said  in  A.  D.  1070,  to  supplant  the 
Arabic  translation  of  the  Jewish  Rabbi,  Saadia  Gaon, 
which  had  till  that  time  been  in  use  among  the  Samari- 
tans. 


Section  II. — On  the  Greek  Language. 

I.  The  Septuagint  Version  of  the  Old  Testament  was 
executed  in  the  Greek  language  ;  and  as  every  Jew,  who 
read  Greek  at  all,  would  read  the  Greek  Bible,  the  style 
of  this  operated  in  forming  the  style  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment, to  which,  as  well  as  to  the  Old  Testament,  the  Sep- 
tuagint is  an  important  source  of  interpretation. 

II.  The  New  Testament  w^as  written  in  Greek,  be- 
cause it  was  the  language  best  understood  both  by  writers 
and  readers,  being  spoken  and  written,  read,  and  under- 
stood throughout  the  Roman  Empire.  Its  style  is  charac- 
terised by  the  prevalence  of  Hebrew  phraseology,  the 
language  of  the  New  Testament  being  formed  by  a 
mixture  of  oriental  idioms  and  expressions,  with  those 
which  are  properly  Greek.  Hence  it  has  been  termed 
Hebraic  Greek  :  and,  from  the  circumstance  of  the  Jews 
having  acquired  the  Greek  language  rather  by  practice 
than  by  grammar  from  the  Greeks,  among  whom  they  re- 
sided, it  has  also  been  termed  the  Hellenistic-Greek.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  phrases  and  constructions  of  the 
New  Testament,  however,  is  pure  Greek,  that  is,  of  the 
same  degree  of  purity  as  the  Greek  spoken  in  Macedonia, 
and  that  in  which  Polybius  wrote  his  Roman  History : 
whence  the  language  of  the  New  Testament  will  derive 
considerable  illustration  from  consulting  the  works  of  clas- 
sic authors,  and  particularly  from  the  Septuagint  Version 
of  the  Old  Testament. 

III.  The  popular  Greek  dialect  was  not  spoken  and 
written  by  the  Jews,  without  some  intermixtures  of  a 
foreign  kind  :  in  particular,  they  intermixed  many  idioms 


70  ORIGINAL  LANGUAGES  OF  8CRIPTURB. 

and  the  general  complexion  of  their  vernacular  language. 
Those  peculiar  idioms  are  termed  Hebraisms  ;  and  their 
nature  and  classes  have  been  treated  at  considerable 
length  by  various  writers.  A  few  examples  will  suffice  to 
show  the  nature  of  these  Hebraisms.     Thus  : 

1.  To  be  called,  to  arise,  and  to  be  found,  are  the  same  as  to  be.  See 
Isa.  Ixi.  3.  Malt.  v.  9.  1  John  Hi.  1.  Eslh.  iv.  14.  Luke  xxiv.  38. 
Dan.  V.  12.     Luke  xvii.  18. 

2.  Verbs,  expressive  of  a  person's  doing  an  action,  are  often  used  to  sig- 
nify his  supposing  the  tiling  or  discovering  and  acknowledging  Uie  fact, 
or  his  declaring  and  foretelling  the  event.  Matt.  x.  39.  1  Cor.  iil.  18. 
Isa.  vi.  9,  10.     Acts  X.  15. 

3.  Negative  verbs  are  often  put  for  a  strong  positive  affirmation.  PsaL 
Ixxxiv.  11.     Rom.  iv.  19.     John  xiv.  8. 

4.  The  privileges  of  the  first  born  among  the  Jews  being  very  great,  the 
chief  or  most  eminent  thing  of  any  kind  is  called  llie  first  born.  Job. 
xviii.  13.     The  first  born  of  death  is  the  most  fatal  and  cruel  death. 

5.  The  words  son,  and  children,  have  various  peculiar  significations: 
as,  Sons  of  Belial,  wicked  men;  Children  of  disobedience  (Eph.  ii.)  arc 
disobedient  persons,  &c. 

6.  Name  is  frequently  synonymous  with  Persons.  John  i.  12.  iii.  18. 
Rev.  iii.  4. 

7.  The  Jews,  having  but  few  adjectives  and  no  superlatives,  in  their 
language,  had  recourse  to  substantives  to  supply  their  place.  Thus  king- 
dom and  glory  denote  a.  glorious  kingdom,  1.  Thess.  ii.  12;  glory  of  his 
power,  denotes  glorious  power.  2.  Thess.  i.  9 ;  Mountains  of  God  are 
exceeding  high  mounlnins,  Psal.  xxxvi.  7,  «fcc. 

8.  According  to  the  Hebrew  idiom,  a  sword  has  a  mouth;  or,  the  edge 
of  a  sword  is  called  a  moutb.     Luke  xxi.  24.     Heb.  xi.  34. 

9.  The  verb  to  know  frequently  denotes  to  approve ;  as  In  Psal.  1.  6. 
Matt.  vii.  '^3. 

10.  To  hear  denotes  to  understand,  to  attend  to,  and  to  regard  what  i« 
said,  Deut.  xvlil.  15,  with  Acts  iil.  23.     Malt.  xvii.  5.     Luke  viii.  8. 

Besides  these  Hebraisms  there  are  found  in  the  New 
Testament  various  Syriac,  Chaldec,  Latin,  and  other  idi- 
oms and  words,  which  are  respectively  denominated  Syri- 
asms,  Persisms,  Latinisms,  &c.  &.c. 

1.  Syriaums  are  the  idioms  peculiar  to  the  Syriac  or  West-Aramoean 
dialed  ;  and  Chaldaisms  are  Ibose  peculiar  to  the  Chaldee  or  East-Ara- 
maean dialect.  Instances  of  these  idioms  occur  In  Rom.  vlll.  15.  MatL 
xxvii.  46.  Mark  v.  41.  vii.  34. 

2.  Latinisms  are  tliose  Latin  words  and  phrases,  which  occur  in  the 
New  Testament,  in  consequence  of  the  Intercourse  of  the  Jews  with  the 
Romans,  after  Judaia  had  been  reduced  into  a  Roman  province.  See 
Malt.   X.  29.     John  ii.  15.     Ada.  vl.  9,  &c. 

3.  Tlie  number  of  words  used  by  St.  Paul  In  peculiar  senses,  as  well  ai 
words  not  ordinarily  occurring  in  Greek  writers,  are  considered  to  be 
provincial  Idioms  at  that  time  used  In  Clllcia:  whence  they  have  been 
termed  Cilicisms. 


ON  THE  MANUSCRIPTS  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


71 


CHAPTER  II. 


ON  THE  UANUSCRIRTS  OF  THB  BIBLE. 


Up  iP  ^  ._ 

^iS'innlnii        5;:'?S3         ^SSS  "Si— 


Form  of  a  Synagogue  Roll  of  the  Pentateuch. 
Section  I.— On  the  Hebrew  Manuscripts  of  the  Old  Testament. 

I.  Hebrew  Manuscripts  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
viz.  autographs,  or  those  actually  written  by  the  inspired 
penmen,  and  apographs,  or  copies  made  from  the  origi- 
nals, and  multiplied  by  repeated  transcription.  The  ma- 
nuscripts still  extant  are  of  two  descriptions  ;  viz. 

1.  The  Rolled  Manuscripts  used  in  the  synagogues, 
which  are  transcribed  with  great  care,  and  under  various 
minute  regulations  designed  to  secure  the  purity  of  the 
sacred  text.  The  form  of  one  of  these  rolled  manuscripts 
(from  the  original  among  the  Harleian  MSS.  in  the  Bri- 
tish Museum,  No.  7619,)  is  given  in  the  vignette  at  the 
head  of  this  section.  It  is  a  large  double  roll,  containing 
the  Hebrew  Pentateuch  ;  written  with  very  great  care  on 
forty  brown  African  skins.  These  skins  are  of  different 
breadths,  some  containing  more  columns  than  others. 
The  columns  are  one  hundred  and  fifty-three  in  number,, 
each  of  which  contains  about  sixty-three  lines,  is  about 
twenty-two  inches  deep,  and  generally  more  than  five 
inches  broad.  The  letters  have  no  points,  apices,  or 
flourishes  about  them.     The  initial  words  are  not  larger 


72  ON  THE  MANUSCRIPTS 

than  the  rest ;  and  a  space  equal  to  about  four  lines,  is 
left  between  every  two  books.  Altogether,  this  is  one  of 
the  finest  specimens  of  the  synagogue-rolls  that  has  been 
preserved  to  the  present  time. 

2.  The  Square  Manuscripts^  which  are  in  private  use 
among  the  Jews,  are  written,  alter  the  manner  of  our 
printed  books,  on  vellum,  parchment,  or  paper  of  various 
sizes. 

II.  Among  the  Jews,  five  exemplars,  or  standard  copies, 
have  been  particularly  celebrated  for  their  correctness  ; 
and  from  them  all  subsequent  copies  have  been  made. 
These  are, 

1.  The  Codex  of  Hillel,  a  manuscript  seen  by  Rabbi 
Kimchi,  in  the  12th  century,  at  Toledo. 

2,  J3.  The  Codices  of  Aaron  Ben  Asher,  President  of 
the  Jewish  Academy  at  Tiberias,  and  of  Jacob  Ben 
Naphtali,  President  ofthe  Jewish  Academy  at  Babylon  ; 
who,  in  the  eleventh  century,  respectively  collated  the 
Manuscripts  ofthe  Oriental  and  Occidental  Jews. 

4,  5.  The  Codex  of  Jericho  tiwdxhc  Codex  of  Sinai  arc 
both  in  high  repute  for  tlioir  correctness.  Of  the  Codex 
iSanhouki  nothing  certain  is  known. 

III.  Various  criteria,  furnislied  by  external  testimony 
*as  well   as   by  internal   marks,  have   been  laid  down  by 

learned  men,  for  ascertaining  the  age  of  Hebrew  Manu- 
scripts :  but  these  criteria  have  been  questioned  by  other 
distinguished  critics,  who  have  advanced  strong  reasons  to 
prove  that  they  are  uncertain  guides  in  determining  the 
age  of  manuscripts. 

IV.  The  ORDER  in  which  the  Sacred  Books  are  arran- 
ged varies  in  different  manuscripts.  Few  of  those  which 
have  been  preserved  contain  the  Old  Testament  entire  ; 
the  greater  part,  indeed,  comprise  only  i)articular  portions 
of  it ;  and  many  have  become  mutilated  by  the  consu- 
ming hand  of  time. 

V.  As  the  Hebrew  Manuscrii)ts,  which  have  been  in 
use  since  the  Uth  century,  have  ail  been  corrected  after 
some  particular  recension  or  edition,  they  have,  from  this 
circumstance,  been  chissed  into  three  or  four  faniiiies, 
according  to  the  country  where  such  recension  has  obtaiu- 
ed ;  viz. 


OF  THE  BIBLE.  73 

1.  The  Spanish  Manuscripts^  which  were  corrected 
after  the  Codex  of  Hillel,  follow  the  Masoretic  System 
with  great  accuracy.  They  are  beautifully  written,  and 
highly  value3  by  the  Jews,  though  some  critics  hold  them 
in  little  estimation. 

2.  The  Oriental  Manuscripts  are  nearly  the  same  as 
the  Spanish  MSS.,  and  may  be  referred  to  the  same 
class. 

3.  The  German  Manuscripts  are  less  elegantly  written 
than  the  Spanish  MSS.  They  do  not  follow  the  Masore- 
tic Notation,  and  frequently  exhibit  important  various 
readings,  that  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  Spanish  MSS. 
This  class,  though  little  esteemed  by  the  Jews,  is  highly 
valued  by  Biblical  critics. 

4.  The  Italian  Manuscripts  hold  a  middle  place,  both 
in  execution  and  critical  value,  between  the  Spanish  and 
German  MSS. 

VI.  The  total  number  of  manuscripts  collated  by  Dr. 
Kennicott,  for  his  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  is  about 
630  :  the  total  number  collated  by  M.  De  Rossi,  for  his 
Collection  of  Various  Readings,  is  479  MSS.,  besides  288 
printed  editions. 

Almost  all  the  Hebrew  Manuscripts  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, at  present  known  to  be  extant,  were  written  be- 
tween the  years  1000  and  1457  ;  whence  Dr.  Kennicott 
infers  that  all  the  MSS.  written  before  the  years  700  or 
800  were  destroyed  by  some  decree  of  the  Jewish  senate, 
on  account  of  their  numerous  differences  from  the  copies 
then  declared  genuine. 

VII.  Among  the  valuable  biblical  manuscripts  brought 
from  India,  by  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Claudius  Buchanan,  and 
now  deposited  in  the  University  Library,  at  Cambridge, 
there  is  a  roll  of  the  Pentateuch,  which  he  procured  from 
the  black  Jews  in  Malabar,  who  (there  is  every  reason  to 
believe)  are  descended  from  the  remains  of  the  first  dis- 
persion of  that  nation  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  date  of 
this  MS.  cannot  be  ascertained  ;  but  it  is  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  those  copies  which  their  ancestors  brought 
with  them  into  India.  It  agrees  in  all  material  points  with 
our  common  printed  Hebrew  text,  and  affords  an  addition- 
al argument  for  the  integrity  of  the  Pentateuch. 

7 


74  ON  THE  MANUSCRIPTS 

Sbction  II.— Account  of  Gieek  Manuscripts  containing  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments. 

I.  Materials  of  Greek  Manuscripts. — These  are  two- 
fold :  viz.  1.  Vellum,  of  various  tliickness,  which  is  eitlier 
purple-coloured,  or  of  its  natural  hue  ;  and,  2.  Paper, 
made  of  cotton  or  linen.  MSS.  on  paper  are  of  much 
later  date  than  tliose  on  vellum. 

II.  Form  of  Letters. — The  letters  are  either  capital, 
which  in  the  time  of  Jerome  were  called  uncial,  i.  e.  initial, 
or  cursive,  that  is,  small.  Greek  MSS.  were  written  in 
capital  letters  till  the  seventh  century  ;  and  a  few  so  late- 
ly even  as  the  ninth  century  :  but  the  small  letters  were 
generally  adopted  towards  the  close  of  the  tenth  century. 
The  most  ancient  MSS.  were  written  without  accents, 
spirits,  or  indeed  any  separations  of  the  words,  until  the 
ninth  century. 

III.  Numerous  abbreviations  exist  in  the  earliest 
MSS.  They  are  made  by  putting  together  the  first  and 
last  letters,  and  sometimes  also  the  middle  letter  :  thus 
KC  (KS)  for  Kvpioi  (Kurios)  Lord,EHP  (ser)  for  Ewrryp  (soteR,) 
Saviour,  &c. 

In  the  author's  larger  work,  facsimile  specimens  are 
given  of  some  of  the  more  ancient  MSS.  which  could  not 
be  reduced  within  the  size  of  this  page,  so  as  to  convey 
an  accurate  idea  of  them  :  but  the  following  literal  ren- 
dering of  Matt.  V.  1 — 3.,  according  to  the  Codex  Bezyp,  or 
Cambridge  MSS.  of  the  Four  Gospels  and  Acts,  (which  is 
described  in  p.  78,  inf/a,)  will  convey  to  the  English 
reader  some  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  manuscripts 
were  anciently  written  and  printed  : — 

Matt.  V.  1—3 
andseeingthemultitudeshewentupintoamountain 
andwhenhewassetdown'cametohim 
hi8i)ih(:ii'les'and0penl\ghism0uth 
hetaughtthemsayinq 

♦ 

BLE8SED.«R£THEP00RINSPT'F0RTHEIRSI8 

TBEKINGDOMOPHEAVEN. 

rpT  is  contracted  for  KPin'T:  the  original  Greek  is  UNI  ipni)  for 
IINEYMATl  (PNcttmatl.) 


OF  THE  BIBLE.  75 

Very  few  MSS.  contain  the  whole  either  of  the  Old  or 
the  New  Testament ;  and  almost  all  the  more  ancient 
manuscripts  are  imperfect. 

Corrections  and  erasures  occur  in  all  MSS.  Such  cor- 
rections as  were  made  a  primd  manu,  that  is,  by  the  copy- 
ist of  a  manuscript,  are  preferable  to  those  made  asecund& 
manu,  that  is,  by  later  hands.  Erasures  were  made,  either 
by  drawing  a  line  through  a  word,  or  with  the  penknife, 
prsomeiimes  the  old  writing  was  obliterated  with  a  sponge, 
and  other  words — treatises  indeed — were  written  in  lieu  of 
it.  Manuscripts  ihus  re-written  are  termed  Codicks  Pal- 
iMPSESTi,  or  Kkscripti  :  many  of  them  are  of  considerable 
antiquity.  They  may  be  easily  known,  as  it  rarely  hap- 
pens that  the  former  writing  is  so  completely  erased,  as 
not  to  exhibit  some  traces.  In  a  few  instances  both  wri- 
tings are  legible. 

IV.  Account  of  Greek  Manuscripts,  containing  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments. 

No  existing  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament  can  be  traced 
higher  than  the  fourth  century ;  and  most  of  them  are 
still  later.  Some  contain  the  whole  New  Testament; 
others  comprise  particular  books  or  fragments  of  books, 
and  several  contain  only  detached  portions  or  lessons  ap- 
pointed to  be  read  in  the  public  service  of  the  Church. 
Some  are  accompanied  with  a  version,  either  interlined 
or  in  a  parallel  column.  These  are  called  Codices  Be- 
Ungues:  the  greatest  number  of  them  is  in  Greek  and 
Latin  ;  and  the  Latin  version  is  in  general  one  of  those 
which  existed  before  the  time  of  Jerome."^ 

1.  The  Codex  Alexandrinus,  or  Alexandrian  Manu- 
script, is  one  of  the  most  precious  relics  of  Christian  anti- 
quity. It  consists  of  four  folio  volumes:  the  three  first 
containing  the  Old  Testament  and  Apocryphal  Books; 
the  fourth  comprising  the  New  Testament,  together  with 
the  first  epistle  of  Clement  to  the  Corinthians,  the  apocry- 
phal psalms  ascribed  to  Solomon,  and  some  liturgical 
hymns.     Athanasius's  Epistle  to  Marcellus  precedes  the 

•  As  the  author  found  it  impracticable  to  abridge  the  numerous  bibliogra- 
phifal  accounts  of  MSS.,  which  are  given  in  his  larger  Introduction  to  the 
Critical  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  so  as  to  convey  a 
fitiltdea  of  their  various  contents,  he  has  been  obliged  to  confine  the  analy- 
sis contained  in  this  section,  to  a  notice  of  the  three  most  important  manu- 
Bcripts;  viz  the  Alexandrian,  Vatican,  and  Cambridge,  MSS. 


76  ON  THE  MANUSCRIPTS 

Psalms,  to  which  last  are  annexed  the  arguments  of  Eirse- 
bius,  as  his  canons  are,  to  the  Gospels.  In  the  New  Tes- 
tament there  is  wanting  the  beginning  as  far  as  Matt.  xxv. 
6  ;  likewise,  from  John  vi.  50,  to  viii.  52;  and  from  2  Cor. 
iv.  13,  to  xii.  7.  This  MS.  was  procured  at  Alexandria, 
by  Cyrillus  Lucaris,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  by  whom 
it  was  sent  as  a  present  to  King  Charles  I.,  in  the  year 
1628.  Since  the  year  1752,  it  has  been  deposited  in  the 
British  Museum.  It  was  most  probably  written  between 
the  middle  and  end  of  the  fourth  century  :  and  tradition 
attributes  the  transcribing  of  it  to  one  Thecla,  amartyress, 
of  whom  nothing  certain  can  now  be  known.  It  is  written 
in  uncial  or  capital  letters.  A  fac-simile  of  the  new  Tes- 
tament was  published  in  1786,  in  folio,  by  Dr.  Woide, 
Assistant  Librarian  at  the  British  Museum  ;  and  a  fac- 
simile edition  of  the  Old  Testament  is  now  in  progress, 
under  the  editorial  care  of  the  Rev.  H.  H.  Baber,  keeper 
of  the  prmted  books  in  that  noble  library.  The  following 
passage,  rendered  rather  more  literally  than  the  idiom  of 
our  language  will  admit,  will  enable  the  reader  to  form  a 
correct  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  the  original  Greek  is 
written 

John  1—14. 

INTHEBEGINNINGWASTHEWORDANDTHEWORDWAS 

WITHGOD'ANDGODWASTHEWORD* 

HEWASINTHEBEGINNINGWITHGOD 

ALLWEREMADEBYHIMANDWITH 

OUTHIMWASMADENOTONETHJ^G 

THATWASMADEINHIMLIFEWAS 

ANDTHELIFEWASTHELIGHTOFMEN 

ANUTHELIGHTINDARKNESSSHIN 

ETHANDTHEDARKNESSDIDNOTITCOMPRE 

HEND"      THEREWASAMANSE 

^TFROMGODWHOSENAME  fr./3S 

JOHN-rHlSP£RSOJVCAME 

A8AWITNE3STHATHEMIGHTTESTI 

FYCONCERNINGTHELIGHTTHATA 

LLMIGHTBELIEVETHROUGHIIIM. 

2.  The  Codex  Vaticanus,  or  Vatican  Manuscript* 
which  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican   Library  at  Rome,  is 


OF  THE  BIBLE.  77 

also  written  on  vellum  in  uncial  characters,  and  most 
probably  before  the  close  of  the  fifth  century,  though  some 
critics  assign  to  it  an  earlier,  and  others  a  later  date.  It 
wants,  in  the  Old  Testament,  from  Gen.  i.  to  xlvi.  and 
from  Psalm  cv.  to  cxxxvii.  inclusive  ;  and  in  the  New 
Testament,  from  Hebrews,  ch.  ix.  14,  to  the  end  of  that 
epistle,  as  well  as  St.  Paul's  other  epistles  to  Timothy, 
Titus,  and  Philemon,  and  the  entire  book  of  the  Revela- 
tions. This  last  book,  however,  has  been  added,  as  well 
as  the  latter  part  of  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  by  a  mo- 
dern hand  in  the  fifteenth  century.  In  many  places,  the 
faded  letters  have  been  retouched  by  a  modern  but  care- 
ful hand.  Various  defects,  both  in  orthography  and  lan- 
guage, indicate  that  this  MS.  was  written  by  an  Egyptian 
copyist. 

The  following  literal  English  version  of  the  prophecy 
of  Ezekiel,  ch.  i.  ver.  1 — 3 ;  will  enable  the  reader  to  form 
a  similarly  correct  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Codex 
Vaticanus  was  executed 

lEZEKIEL. 

+  +  + 

"VwHTnowitcametopassinthethir 


iNi 


INTHE 

TIETHYEARFOURTH 

MONTHONTHEFIFTHOFTHEMONTH 

WHENIWASlNTHEMmST 

OFTHECAPTIVESBYTHE 

RIVERCHOBARAND 

THEHEAVENSWEREOPENED 

ANDISAWTHEVISIONSOFGDONTHEFI 

FTHOFTHEMONTHTHIS 

WAS'1'HEFIFTHYEAROFTHE 

CAPTIVITYOFTHEKI 

NGJOACHIM     ANDCA 

METH  E  WORDOFTHELDTOE 

ZEKIELTHESONOFBUZITHE 

PRIESTINTHELANDOFTHECHALDEESB 

YTHERIVERCHO 

BARANDDPONMEWAS 

THEHANDOFTHELDANDILOOKEDANDLO 

AWHIRLWNDCAMEOUTOF 

THENORTHANDAGREATCLODD 

WITHIT 


This  manuscript  has  been  repeatedly  collated  by  vari- 
ous critics :  the  Roman  edition  of  the  Septuagint,  pub- 

7* 


79  DIVISIONS  AND  MARKS  OF  DISTINGTIOI^ 

lished  in  1587,  professes  to  exhibit  tlie  text  of  this  manu- 
script, of  which  no  fac-siniile  edition  has  ever  been  printed.. 
3.  Tlie  Codex  Cantabrigiensis  was  presented  to  the 
University  of  Cambridge  hy  Theodore  Beza,  in  1531, 
after  whom  it  is  most  commonly  called  the  Codex  Bezce, 
It  is  a  Greek-Latin  manuscript ;  concerning  its  date, 
critics  greatly  difler ;  but  it  may  most  probably  be  re- 
ferred to  the  fifth  or  sixth  century.  It  contains  the  four 
Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles  :  sixty-six  leaves  of  it 
are  much  torn  and  mutilated,  and  ten  have  been  supplied  by 
a  later  transcriber.  Notwithstanding  its  acknowledged 
antiquity,  this  MS.  is  deemed  of  comparatively  little  value, 
in  consequence  of  the  Greek  text  having  been  altered, 
and  readings  introduced  from  some  Latin  version,  which 
were  warranted  by  no  Greek  manuscript.  An  elegant 
fac-simile  edition  of  it  was  printed  at  the  expense  of  the 
university  of  Cambridge,  under  the  editorial  care  of  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Kipling,  in  2" vols,  folio,  1793. 


CHAPTER  TIL 

ON    THB   DIVISIONS    AND   MAUKS    OF   DISTINCTION    OCCPKniNG   IN    MANCSCRIPTS 
AND    PRINTED    EDITIONS    OF   TUB    SCRIPTURES. 

Section  I.— Divisions  and  Marks  of  Distinction  occurring  in  the  Old 
Testament, 

I.  Difleront  Appellations  given  to  the  Scriptures. 
The  collection  of  writings,  which  is  regarded  by  Chris- 
tians as  the  rule  of  their  faith  and  practice,  has  been  va- 
riously termed, — the  Scriptures^  as  being  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  Writings; — the  Holy  or  Sacred  Scrij)- 
turcs,  because  they  were  composed  by  divinely  ins[)ired 
persons  ; — the  Canonical  Scriptures,  either  because  they 
are  the  rule  of  our  faith  and  practice,  or  to  distinguish 
them  from  apocryphal  writings,  (those  of  uncertain  au- 
thority and  of  hnnian  origin  ;) — and,  most  frequently,  the 
Bible,  that  is,  The  Book,  by  way  of  eminence,  as  being 
the  Book  of  Books,  infinitely  superior  to  every  unassisted 
production  of  the  human  mind. 

II.  The  Canonical  Books  are  usually  divided  into  two 
parts  :  1    The  Old  Testament,  containing  the  revelations. 


OCCURRING  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT, 


79 


of  the  divine  will  before  the  Birth  of  Christ ;  and  2.  The 
New  Testament^  which  comprises  the  inspired  writings  of 
the  Evangelists  and  Apostles. 

III.  The  Old  Testament  was  divided  into  three  portions 
or  classes  ;  viz. : 

1.  The  Law,  including  the  Pentateuch,  or  five  Books  of  Moses. 

2.  The  Prophets,  containing  the  Books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  1  and  2 
Samuel,  and  1  and  2  Kings:  these  were  termed  the  For7ner  Prophets; 
and  also  the  prophetical  Books  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  the  twelve 
minor  Prophets,  who  were  called  the  Latter  Prophets,  with  reference  to 
the  time  wlien  they  flourished. 

3.  Tlie  Cetabim.  or  Hagiographa,  that  is,  the  Holy  Writings,  so  called 
because  the  Jews  affirm  that  they  were  written  by  holy  men  divinely  in- 
spired, but  who  had  no  public  mission  as  prophets.  This  division  com- 
prehended the  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job,  Song  of  Solomon,  Ruth,  Lamenta- 
tions of  Jeremiah,  Ecclesiastes,  Esther,  Deuiiel.  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah,  euid 
tlie  two  Books  of  Chronicles. 

The  Pentateuch  is  divided  into  fifty  or  fifty-four  Para^ 
schioth^  or  larger  sections,  according  as  the  Jewish  year  is 
simple  or  intercalary,  one  of  which  is  read  in  the  syna- 
gogues every  Sabbath  day  :  and  these  Paraschioth  arc  fur- 
ther subdivided  into  smaller  sections  termed  Siderim,  or 
orders.  The  reading  of  the  law  being  prohibited  during  the 
persecution  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  Jews  substituted 
for  it  fifty-four  Haphtoroih  or  sections  from  the  prophets, 
which  are  further  divided  mto  pesukim  or  verses.  After 
the  restoration  of  the  reading  of  the  law,  by  the  Macca- 
bees, the  section  which  had  before  been  read  from  the  law 
was  used  for  the  first,  and  that  from  the  prophets  for  the 
second  lesson. 

IV.  Origin  and  rise  of  the  Masora. — The  sacred  text 
was,  originally,  written  without  any  divisions  into  chapters 
or  verses,  or  even  into  words.  In  the  lapse  of  ages,  va- 
rious readings  having  arisen  in  consequence  of  successive 
transcriptions,  the  Jews  had  recourse  to  a  canon,  which 
they  judged  to  be  infallible,  in  order  to  fix  the  reading  of 
the  Hebrew  text.  This  rule  they  called  Masora,  or  Tra- 
dition, pretending  that  it  was  at  first  given  by  God  to 
Moses,  on  Mount  Sinai,  when  he  taught  him,  first,  its  true 
readings  and,  secondly,  its  true  interpretation.  The 
former  is  the  subject  of  the  Masora,  tiie  latter  (or  true 
interpretation)  is  that  of  the  Misna,  or  Collection  of  Jew- 
ish Traditions  and  Expositions  of  Scripture  Texts,  and 
of  the  Gemara,  or  Commentary  thereon. 

The  Masorctie  criticisms  relate  to  the  divisions  of  the 


gQ  DIVISIONS  ETC.,  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

books  and  sections  of  books,  the  number  of  verses,  the 
notation  of  omissions,  aherations,  repetitions  of  words 
and  verses,  and  other  minutiae.  To  this  system  also  be- 
long the  marginal  corrections  found  in  Hebrew  MSS.  and 
printed  editions  of  the  Old  Testament,  termed  Kctib^  that 
is,  ivritten,  and  Keri^  that  is,  read  or  readings  as  if  to  in- 
timate, "  write  in  tliis  manner,"  but  "  read  in  that  man- 
ner ;"  for  instance,  instead  of  the  sacred  name  Jehovah, 
the  Jews  substitute  Adonai  or  Elohim.  Learned  men  are 
greatly  divided  in  sentiment  concerning  the  date  of  the 
Masora  ;  but  the  most  probable  opinion  is  that  which  re- 
fers its  commencement  to  the  sixth  century,  when  it  was 
invented  by  the  learned  Jews  of  Tiberias,  and  continued 
at  diflferent  times  by  various  authors.  Their  chief  design 
in  this  undertaking,  appears  to  have  been  the  establishment 
or  preservation  of  the  Hebrew  text,  without  variations. 

V.  The  Old  Testament  is  now  divided  into  four  parts  ; 
viz.: 

1.  The  Pentateuch,  or  five  Books  of  Moses. 

2.  The  Historical  Books,  comprising  Joshua  to  Esther,  Inclusive. 

3.  The  Doctrinal  or  Poetical  Books  of  Job,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Eccleslaa- 
tes,  and  the  Song  of  Solomon  ;  and 

4.  The  Prophetical  Books  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  with  his  Lamentations, 
Ezekiei,  Daniel,  and  the  twelve  Minor  Prophets. 

These  are  severally  divided  into  chapters  ana  verses. 
The  former  were  invented  by  Cardinal  Hugo  de  Sancto 
Caro,  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  :  who, 
having  projected  a  concordance  to  the  Latin  Vulgate 
translation,  divided  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  into 
chapters,  which  are  the  same  v/e  now  have.  These,  again, 
he  subdivided  into  smaller  sections,  distinguislied  by  the 
letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  and  G.  The  facility  of  refer- 
ence, afforded  by  these  subdivisions,  suggested  tiie  idea  of 
a  Hebrew  concordance,  upon  the  same  plan,  to  Rabbi  Mor- 
decai  Nathan,  a  celebrated  Jewish  teacher  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  who  retained  the  divisions  of  chapters,  but  sub- 
stituted numeral  figures  for  the  Cardinal's  marginal  let- 
ters. The  introduction  of  verses  into  the  Hebrew  Bible 
was  first  made,  in  1661,  by  Athias,  a  Jewish  printer  at 
Amsterdam:  and  from  him  the  division  of  verses  has  been 
adopted  in  all  copies  of  the  Bible  in  other  languages. 


DIVISIONS,  ETC.,  IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  Ql 


Section  II.— On  the  Divisions  and  Mailts  of  Distinction  occurring  in  the 
New  Testament. 

I.  Ancient  Divisions. — Before  the  fourth  century  the 
New  Testament  was  divided  into  longer  chapters,  called 
tit\oi  [titloi,)  and  others  which  were  shorter  called  x^fa^ata 
{kephalaia^)  or  heads,  and  also  breves.  The  most  ce- 
lebrated division  of  the  four  Gospels  into  chapters  was 
that  of  Ammonius,  a  learned  Christian  of  Alexandria,  in 
the  third  century,  from  whom  they  have  been  termed  the 
Ammonian  Sections.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the 
Catholic  Epistles  were  similarly  divided  by  Euthalius,  an 
Egyptian  Bishop,  in  the  fifth  century,  after  whom  these 
divisions  have  been  called  the  Euthalian  Sections.  Saint 
Paul's  Epistles  were  divided  in  like  manner,  by  some  un- 
known author,  in  the  fourth  century.  These  divisions 
were  superseded  by  Cardinal  Hugo's  chapters,  in  the 
thirteenth  century. 

II.  Punctuation  and  Division  of  Verses. — Euthalius, 
who  has  just  been  mentioned,  was  the  inventor  of  the  di- 
vision of  the  New  Testament  into  pxo'  (stichoi,)  or  lines 
regulated  by  the  sense  ;  so  that  each  terminated  where 
some  pause  was  to  be  made  in  reading.  The  introduction 
of  points  or  stops,  to  mark  the  sense,  is  a  gradual  improve- 
ment, commenced  by  Jerome  in  the  fourth  century,  and 
continued  and  improved  by  succeeding  critics.  The  verses 
at  present  found  in  the  New  Testament  were  invented  (in 
imitation  of  those  contrived  by  Rabbi  Nathan)  by  Robert 
Stephens,  a  learned  printer,  who  first  introduced  them  into 
bis  edition  of  the  New  Testament  published  in  1551. 

III.  The  Inscriptions,  or  Titles,  prefixed  to  the  vari- 
ous books  of  the  New  Testament,  are  of  great  antiquity. 
They  were  added,  in  order  to  distinguish  one  book  from 
another,  after  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  was  form- 
ed, but  the  author  of  them  is  not  known. 

IV.  But  the  Subscriptions  annexed  to  the  epistles  are 
manifestly  spurious,  for  some  of  them  contradict  both 
chronology  and  history.  For  instance,  according  to  the 
subscriptions  to  1  and  2  Thessalonians,  those  epistles 
were  written  at  Athens,  whereas  they  were  written  at 
Corinth.  The  subscription  to  1  Corinthians  states  that  it 
was  written  at  Philippi ;  notwithstanding  it  appears  froHi 


02  ON  THE  ANCIENT  VERSIONS 

xvi.  8,  and  19,  that  the  apostle  was  at  that  very  time  in 
Asia.  The  subscription  to  the  epistle  to  the  Galatians 
purports  that  epistle  to  have  been  written  from  Rome  ; 
whereas  Saint  Paul  did  not  go  to  Rome  until  ten  years 
AFTER  the  conversion  of  the  Galatians.  And  the  sub- 
scription to  tiie  first  epistle  to  Timothy  evidently  was  not, 
and  indeed  could  not  have  been,  written  by  the  apostle 
Paul :  for  it  states  that  epistle  to  have  been  written  from 
Phrygia  Pacatiana  ;  whereas  the  country  of  Phrygia  was 
not  divided  into  the  two  provinces  of  Phrygia  Pacatia- 
na^ or  Prima,  and  Phrygia  Secunda,  until  the  iourth 
century.  The  author  of  these  subscriptions,  it  is  evident, 
was  either  grossly  ignorant,  or  grossly  inattentive. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ON  THE  ANCIENT  VERSIONS  OP  THE  SCRIPTURES. 

To  those  who  possess  ability,  means,  and  leisure  of  con- 
sulting them,  the  Ancient  Versions  of  the  Old  Testament 
are  a  very  important  source  of  criticism  and  interpretation 
of  the  sacred  writing;  the  value  of  them,  however,  varies 
according  to  the  age  and  country  of  their  respective  au- 
thors, the  purity  of  the  text  whence  these  versions  were 
made,  and  the  ability  and  fidelity  of  the  translators. 


Skction  I.— Of  the  Targums,  or  Chaldee  Paraphrases. 

Targum  isa  Chaldee  word,  signifying  generally  any 
version  or  explanation  ;  but  this  appellation  is  particularly 
restricted  to  the  versions  or  paraphrases  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, which  have  been  composed  in  the  Chaldee  Dialect. 
Ten  of  these  expositions  have  been  preserved  to  our 
times  :  viz. 

I.  The  Targum  of  Onkelos  on  the  Pentateuch,  or  five 
books  of  Moses,  was  composed  by  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi 
of  the  same  name,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  contem- 
porary with  our  Saviour.  It  is  preferred  to  every  other, 
on  account  of  the  purity  of  its  style,  and  its  general  free- 
dom from  idle  legends. 


OF  THE  SCRIPTURES.  §3 

II.  The  Targum  of  the  Pseudo-Jonathan,  so  called 
from  being  erroneously  ascribed  to  Jonathan  Ben  Uzziel, 
is  a  more  liberal  paraphrase  of  the  Pentateuch  than  the 
preceding,  but  abounds  with  the  most  idle  Jewish  legends. 
From  internal  evidence,  learned  men  concur  in  referring 
its  date  to  the  seventh  or  eight  century  of  the  Christian 
^ra. 

III.  The  Jerusalem  Targum,  also  on  the  five  books  of 
Moses,  in  many  respects  agrees  with  that  of  the  Pseudo- 
Jonathan,  in  the  impurity  of  its  style,  legendary  tales,  <fec. 
It  was  most  probably  written  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century. 

IV.  The  Targum  of  Jonathan  Ben  Uzziel,  on  the  Pro- 
phets (that  is  according  to  the  Jewish  Division  of  the  sacred 
books  mentioned  in  p.  79.)  is  held  in  the  highest  estima- 
tion. Its  date  cannot  be  exactly  ascertained  ;  some  learn- 
ed men  making  it  nearly  coeval  with  the  time  of  Christ, 
while  others  place  it  three  or  four  hundred  years  later. 

V.  The  barbarous,  and  in  many  places,  obscure  Targum 
on  the  Cetubim,  or  Holy  Writings,  though  ascribed  to 
Rabbi  Joseph,  surnamed  the  Blind,  in  the  third  century, 
is  evidently  a  compilation  of  much  later  date. 

VI.  The  Targum  on  the  Megilloth,  or  five  books  of 
Ecclesiastes,  Song  of  Songs,  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah, 
Euih,  and  Esther,  could  not  be  written  before  the  sixth 
century.  It  is  of  very  little  value.  The  same  remark  is 
applicable  to 

VII — IX.  Three  Targums  on  The  Book  of  Esther  ; 
and  X.  a  Targum  on  The  Books  of  Chronicles  ;  all  of 
which  are  of  very  recent  date. 

XI.  Of  all  these  Chaldee  Paraphrases,  the  Targums  of 
Onkelos  and  Jonathan  Ben  Uzziel  are  held  in  the  highest 
estimation  by  the  Jews  ;  but  it  is  in  establishing  the 
genuine  meaning  of  particular  prophecies  relative  to  the 
Messiah,  in  opposition  to  the  false  explications  of  the  Jews 
and  the  erroneous  expositions  of  Anti-Trinitarians,  that 
these  paraphrases  are  pre-eminently  useful. 


Section  II. — Ancient  Greek  Versions  of  the  Old  Testament 

I.  Among  the  Greek  Versions  of  the  Old  Testanient, 
the  most  ancient  and  valuable  is  that  usually  designated 


g4  ON  THE  ANCIENT  VERSIONS  OF 

the  Septuagint,  from  the  tradition  (now  generally  reject- 
ed) of  one  Aristeas,  who  related  that  it  was  made  in  seven- 
ty-two days,  and  by  seventy  learned  Jews,  who  had  been 
sent  by  the  Jewish  High  Priest  Eleazar  to  Alexandria,  at 
the  request  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  King  of  Egypt.  It 
is,  however,  most  probable,  that  this  version  was  really 
executed  during  the  joint  reigns  of  Ptolemy  Lagus,  and 
his  son  Philadelphus,  and  about  285  or  286  years  before 
the  Christian  j^Era. 

II.  The  introduction  of  Coptic,  or  pure  Egyptian  words, 
and  the  rendering  of  Hebrew  ideas  in  the  Egyptian  man- 
ner, clearly  prove  that  the  translators  wore  natives  of 
Egypt ;  as  the  difference  of  style  and  various  ability,  with 
which  particular  books  have  been  rendered  into  Greek, 
evince  this  version  to  have  been  the  work,  not  of  one, 
but  of  several  individuals. 

III.  The  Septuagint  Version,  though  originally  made 
for  the  use  of  the  Egyptian  Jews,  gradually  acquired  the 
highest  authority  among  the  Jews  of  Palestine,  who  were 
acquainted  with  the  Greek  language,  and  subsequently 
also  among  Christians.  It  retained  its  authority,  even 
with  the  rulers  of  the  Jewish  Synagogue,  until  the  com- 
mencement of  the  first  century  after  Christ;  when  the 
Jews  being  unable  to  resist  the  arguments  from  prophecy 
which  were  urged  against  them  by  Christians,  in  order 
to  deprive  these  of  the  benefit  of  that  authority,  began  to 
deny  that  it  agreed  with  the  Hebrew  Text,  and,  ultimate- 
ly abandoning  itthoy  adopted  the  Greek  Version  of  Aquila, 
which  is  noticed  in  p.  86,  infra. 

IV.  Numerous  errors  having  in  the  lapse  of  ages  crept 
into  the  Septuagint,  by  the  inaccuracy  of  transcribers  and 
other  circumstances,  Origen,  a  learned  Christian  Father, 
in  the  early  part  of  the  third  century,  undertook  the  labo- 
rious task  of  collating  the  Greek  Text  then  in  use,  with 
the  original  Hebrew,  and  with  other  Greek  Translations 
then  extant,  and  from  the  whole  to  produce  a  new  recen- 
sion orrevisal.  Twenty-eight  years  were  devoted  to  this 
great  critical  work,  which  ancient  writers  have  variously 
termed  the  Tetrapla,  Hexapla,  Octapla,  and  Enneapla, 
Tetrapla  contained  the  four  Greek  Versions  of  Aquila, 
Symmachus,  the  Septuagint,  and  Theodotion  :  when  he 
subsequently  added,  in  two  columns,  the  Hebrew  Text,  in 


OF  THE  SCRIPTURES.  gg 

Us  original  characters,  and  also  in  Greek  characters,  the 
six  columns  formed  the  Hexapla.  The  addition  of  two 
other  Greek  Versions  of  some  parts  of  the  Scriptures,  in 
particular  places,  composed  the  Octayla  ;  and  a  separate 
translation  of  the  Psalms  being  afterwards  subjoined,  the 
entire  work  has  by  some  been  termed  the  Enneapla.  It 
is,  however,  most  probable,  that  Origen  edited  only  the 
Tetrapla  and  the  Hexapla.  As  Origen's  object  was  to 
correct  the  differences  found  in  the  existing  copies  of  the 
Old  Testament,  he  carefully  noted  the  alterations  made 
by  him,  with  peculiar  marks.  Fifty  years  after  his  death, 
this  great  work  was  discovered  in  an  obscure  corner  of 
the  city  of  Tyre,  by  Eusebius  and  Pamphilus,  by  whom 
it  was  deposited  in  the  Library  of  Pamphilus  the  Martyr, 
where  Jerome  saw  it  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  centu- 
ry. It  is  supposed  to  have  perished  on  the  capture  of  that 
city  by  the  Arabs,  A.  D.  653.  A  few  fragments,  retrieved 
from  MSS.  of  the  Septuagint  and  the  writings  of  the  Fa- 
thers, are  all  that  remain  of  this  noble  undertaking  in  be- 
half of  sacred  literature. 

V.  The  Septuagint  continuing  to  be  read  in  most  of 
the  Greek  churches,  the  text,  as  corrected  by  Origen, 
was  transcribed  for  their  use  together  with  his  critical 
marks.  In  progress  of  time,  from  the  introduction  of  nu- 
merous errors  by  copyists,  a  new  revision  became  neces- 
sary :  and  as  all  the  oriental  churches  did  not  receive 
Origen's  labours  with  equal  deference,  three  principal 
recensions  were  undertaken  nearly  at  the  same  time,  viz : 

1.  The  edition,  undertaken  by  Eusebius  and  Pamphi- 
lus, about  A.  D.  300,  from  the  Hexaplar  Text,  with  the 
whole  of  Origen's  critical  marks  :  by  repeated  transcrip- 
tions these  marks  soon  became  changed,  and  were  finally 
omitted. 

2.  The  recension  of  the  Vulgate,  or  common  Greek 
Text,  by  Lucian,  a  presbyter  of  the  Church  at  Antioch, 
who  suffered  martyrdom  A.  D.  311.  He  took  the  He- 
brew Text  for  the  basis  of  his  edition,  which  was  received 
in  all  the  eastern  churches  from  Constantinople  to  Anti- 
och.    Contemporary  with  Lucian  was 

3.  Hesychius,  an  Egyptian  Bishop,  who  undertook 
a  similar  revision,  which  was  generally  adopted  in  the 
churches  of  Egypt. 

8 


QQ  ON  THE  ANCIENT  VERSIONS 

All  MSS.  and  printed  editions  of  the  Septuagint,  now 
extant,  are  derived  from  these  three  recensions.  The 
Septuagint  Version  is  of  great  importance,  in  a  critical 
point  of  view,  not  only  for  correcting  the  Hebrew  text, 
but  also  for  ascertaining  the  meaning  of  particular  idio- 
matic expressions  and  passages  in  the  New  Testament. 

VI.  It  remains  to  notice,  briefly,  some  other  ancient 
Greek  Translations,  which  have  been  incidentally  men- 
tioned. 

1.  The  Version  of  Aqtjila,  a  native  of  Sinope,  in  Pon- 
tus,  was  executed  about  the  year  160.  He  was  of  Jew- 
ish descent,  and  had  apostatised  from  the  Christian  faith 
to  Judaism.  His  version,  which  is  very  literal,  was  un- 
dertaken to  gratify  the  Jews.  Nearly  contemporary  with 
him  was 

2.  Theodotion,  an  Ebionite,  or  semi-christian  :  his 
version  is  a  kind  of  revision  of  the  Septuagint ;  it  holds 
a  middle  place  between  the  servile  closeness  of  Aquila 
and  the  freedom  of  4.  Symmaciius,  who  lived  about  the 
year  200,  and  was  also  an  Ebionite. 

4 — 6.  The  three  anonymous  translations,  usually 
called  the  Jifth^  sixths  and  seventh  versions,  derive  their 
names  from  the  order  in  which  Origen  disposed  them  in 
his  columns.     Their  authors  are  not  known. 


Sbction  III.— Ancient  Oriental  Versions  of  the  Old  and  New  Teetamenta.* 

I.  Syriac  Versions. — Christianity  being  very  early- 
preached  in  Syria,  several  versions  of  the  Scriptures  were 
made  into  the  language  of  that  country. 

1.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  is  the  Peschito,  (that 
is,  right,  literal,  or  exact,)  also  called  the  Versio  Simplex^ 
on  account  of  its  close  adherence  to  the  original  sacred 
text.  It  was  made  early  in  the  second,  if  not  at  the  close 
of  the  first  century:  and,  from  some  internal  evidences 
furnished  by  the  style,  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
work  of  several  authors.  The  second  epistle  of  Peter, 
the  second  and  third  epistles  of  John,  and  the  epistle  of 

•  In  the  larger  edition  of  the  author's  Introduction  to  the  Study  and 
Knowledee  of  the  Kcriptuies,  he  has  treated  the  oriental  verelona  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  in  difilinrt  sertlons.  They  are  here  condensed. 
In  order  to  avoid  repetitions,  thoi  wouW  otherwise  be  neceflaary. 


OF  THE  SCRIPTURES.  87 

Jude,  as  well  as  the  disputed  passages  in  John  viii.  2 — 
11,  and  1  John  v.  7,  are  all  wanting  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment of  this  version ;  having  been  added  in  the  sixth 
century  by  some  unknown  and  indifferent  translator. 
This  version  is  much  esteemed  for  its  singular  fidelity. 

2.  The  Philoxenian.ov  Syro-Philoxenian  Version,  de- 
rives its  name  from  Philoxenus  or  Xenayas,  Bishop  of 
Hierapolis  in  Syria,  A.  D.  488 — 518,  who  employed  his 
rural  bishop,  Polycarp,  to  translate  the  New  Testament 
from  the  original  Greek  into  the  vernacular  Syriac  of 
that  time.  Though  inferior  to  the  preceding,  it  is  ne- 
vertheless of  considerable  value  in  a  critical  point  of 
view,  as  well  as  for  the  interpretation  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 

3.  The  Syriac  Translation  of  Jerusalem  is  known  to 
have  existed,  from  its  having  been  discovered  in  a  lec- 
tionarium,  or  book  containing  ecclesiastical  lessons  from 
the  New  Testament.     It  has  never  been  published. 

II.  Egyptian  Versions. — Two  Translations  of  the 
Scriptures  have  been  made  in  the  Egyptian  language, 
— one  in  the  Coptic  or  ancient  dialect  of  Lower  Egypt, 
the  other  in  the  Sahidic,  or  dialect  of  Upper  Egypt,  and 
both  from  the  Greek.  The  Coptic  Version  is  by  some 
eminent  scholars  referred  to  the  second  or  third  century, 
though  others  carry  its  date  so  low  as  the  fifth  century ; 
the  Sahidic  Version  was  probably  executed  in  the  second 
century. 

III.  Several  Arabic  Translations  have  been  made  at 
different  times  between  the  seventh,  and  the  tenth  or 
eleventh  centuries,  for  the  inhabitants  of  those  countries, 
where  the  Syriac  and  Egyptian  languages  have  been 
supplanted  by  the  Arabic.  They  were  not  all  executed 
from  the  original  text,  but  from  those  versions,  .which 
they  were  intended  to  accompany. 

IV.  The  Ethiopic,  or  Abyssinian  Version  of  the  Old 
Testament  was  made  from  the  Septuagint ;  some  frag- 
ments of  it  only  have  been  printed,  but  the  entire  New 
Testament,  has  been  published.  This  version  is  of  con- 
siderable antiquity,  the  Old  Testament  being  referred  to 
the  second,  and  the  New  Testament  to  the  fourth 
century 

V.  The  Armenian  Version  of  the  Old  Testament  was 


gg  ON  THE  ANCIENT  VERSIONS 

also  made  from  the  Septuagint ;  the  New  Testament  has 
been  twice  translated,  from  the  Syriac,  and  then  from  the 
Greek.  This  version  is  ascribed  to  Miesrob,  the  inven- 
tor of  the  Armenian  Alphabet,  towards  the  close  of  the 
fourth,  or  early  in  the  fifth  century 

VI.  Though  the  Scriptures  are  said  to  have  been  early 
translated  into  the  Persian  language,  no  fragments  of 
this  ancient  version  are  extant.  The  Pentateuch  is  all 
that  has  been  printed  of  the  Old  Testament ;  it  was  trans- 
lated by  a  Jew,  and  for  the  benefit  of  Jews.  Of  the  New 
Testament,  there  are  extant  two  versions  of  the  four  Gos- 
pels ;  the  most  ancient  and  valuable  of  which  is  printed 
in  the  London  Polyglott,  by  bishop  Walton,  from  a  ma- 
nuscript of  the  fourteenth  century. 


tT^I 


.  .  Section  IV. — Ancient  WefltQm  Versions  of  the  Scriptures. 


Y  Many  Latin  Versions  of  the  Scriptures  were  made 
at  the  first  introduction  of  Christianity,  by  unknown  au- 
thors. One  of  these,  called  the  Vetus  Itala,  or  Old  Italic, 
appears  to  have  acquired  a  more  extensive  circulation 
than  the  others,  to  which  it  was  preferred  on  account  of 
its  clearness  and  fidelity.  It  was  translated  from  the 
Greek,  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments;  and  was 
made  in  the  early  part  of  the  second  century.  In  the 
progress  of  time,  very  numerous  alterations,  however, 
being  made  by  transcribers,  Jerome,  towards  the  close  of 
the  fourth  century,  undertook  to  revise  it,  and  make  it 
more  conformable  to  the  original  Greek.  Some  parts 
only  of  this  revision  ]iave  been  preserved.  But  before  it 
was  completed,  he  undertook,  and  at  length  accomplished, 
a  version  of  the  Bible,  which  gradually  acquired  so  great 
an  authority  in  the  West  of  Europe,  that,  ever  since  the 
seventh  century,  it  has  been  exclusively  adopted  by  the 
Romish  Church  ;  and  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  assem- 
bly or  council  of  Trent  pronounced  the  Latin  A'ulgate 
(for  so  this  version  is  termed)  to  be  authentic,  and  to  be 
exclusively  used  in  the  public  service  of  the  church.  Va- 
rious grave  errors  having  crept  into  this  version  in  the 
lapse  of  ages,  several  revisions  were  undertaken  by  learn- 
ed men.     Of  these  the  most  celebrated  is  the  revision  of 


OF  THE  SCRIPTURES.  §9 

Pope  Sixtus  v.,  published  at  Rome  in  1590, but  suppres- 
sed by  Pope  Clement  VIII.,  whose  *luthentic  edition  ap- 
peared in  1592.  This  edition  has  been  followed  in  all 
subsequent  impressions  of  the  Latin  Vulgate.  Notwith- 
standing the  variations  between  the  Sixtine  and  Clemen- 
tine editions,  (both  published  by  infallible  pontiffs  !)  and 
that  several  passages  are  mistranslated  in  order  to  sup- 
port the  peculiar  dogmas  of  the  Romish  Church,  the  La- 
tin Vulgate  preserves  many  true  readings,  where  the 
modern  Hebrew  copies  are  corrupted. 

II.  The  Gothic  Version  of  the  Bible  was  made  from 
the  Greek,  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  by  Ul- 
philas.  Bishop  of  the  Maeso-Goths,  who  invented  the 
Gothic  characters.  A  fragment  of  the  Book  of  Nehemiah, 
the  four  Gospels,  and  some  portions  of  the  Epistles,  are 
all  that  has  been  published,  from  this  version;  which, 
though  interpolated  from  the  Latin  Vulgate,  is  neverthe- 
less much  esteemed  for  its  general  fidelity. 

III.  The  Sclavonic  or  Old  Russian  translation  was 
executed  from  the  Greek,  in  the  ninth  century,  by  the 
two  brothers,  Cyril  and  Methodius.  It  is  said  to  have 
undergone  several  revisions ;  and  the  New  Testament  is 
rendered  with  more  perspicuity  than  the  Old. 

IV.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Version  is  ascribed  by  Dr.  Mill 
to  several  authors,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  executed 
in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries.  Having  been  made 
from  the  Old  Latin,  it  may  be  of  use  in  determining  the 
readings  of  that  version.  Several  portions  of  it  have  been 
published  at  different  times. 


Section  V.— Use  and  Application  of  Ancient  Versions. 

As  no  one  version  can  be  absolutely  free  from  error, 
reliance  ought  not  to  be  implicitly  placed  on  any  one 
translation.  Versions  of  Versions,  that  is,  versions  not 
made  immediately  from  the  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament, 
or  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament,  are  of  authority 
only  to  determine  the  meaning  of  the  version  from  which 
they  are  taken. 

I.  The  Alexandrian,  or  Septuagint  Greek  Version,  from 
its  very  great  antiquity,  and  its  influence  on  the  style  of  the 
•New  Testament,  claims  the  first  place.  Next  in  order  is, 
8* 


90 


ON  THE  MODERN  VERSIONS 


II.  The  Syriac  Peschito,  which  is  particularly  service- 
able for  the  interpretHtion  of  the  New  Testament. 

III.  The  Latin  Vulgate,  with  the  exception  of  the  Psalms,, 
claims  the  third  place 

IV.  The  Targums,  or  Chaldee  Paraphrases,  especially 
that  of  Jonathan  Ben  Uzziel,  illustrate  many  difficult  pas- 
sages in  the  Old  Testament,  as  well  as  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

V.  Other  versions  made  immediately  from  the  Hebrew 
and  Greek  originals  follow  next  in  order. 

Ancient  versions  need  not  to  be  consulted,  except  in 
passages  that  are  really  difficult,  or  unless  an  examination 
of  them  be  instituted  for  some  special  object  of  inquiry. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ON   THE   MODERN    VERSIONS    OF   THE    SCRfPTCRUS. 

Numerous  as  were  the  ancient  versions  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures,  the  publication  of  a  version,  being  accomplish- 
ed by  the  tedious  process  of  transcription,  was  necessarily 
slow,  v/hile  the  high  price  of  manuscripts  enabled  only  the 
wealthy  to  procure  them.  The  discovery  of  the  art  of 
printing  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  the  establishment  of 
the  glorious  reformation  throughout  Europe  in  the  follow- 
ing century,  facilitated  the  circulation  of  the  Scriptures, 
both  in  the  original  Languages  and  through  the  medium 
of  translations.  The  Modern  Versions  of  the  Scriptures 
are  two-fold,  viz.  :  in  the  Latin  Language,  and  in  the 
vernacular  languages  of  almost  all  the  countries  in  which 
Christianity  has  been  propagated  :  and  both  are  made, 
either  by  persons  in  communion  with  the  Church  of 
Rome,  or  by  Protestants. 


BacTiON  I.   On  the  Modern  Latin  Versions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 

I.  Modern  Latin  Versions,  executed  in  communion  with 
the  Church  of  Rome. 

1.  The  Version  of  Sanctes  Pagninus  a  Dominican  monk, 
was  undertaken  under  the  patronage  of  several  popes;  and,. 


OF  THE  SCRIPTURES.  g| 

"  after  twenty-five  years  of  unremitting  labour,  was  publish- 
ed in  1528.  Though  it  has  been  censured  by  one  critic 
for  its  close  adherence  to  the  original  text,  all  the  later 
commentators  and  critics  commend  it  for  its  exactness  and 
fidelity.  It  contains  only  the  Old  Testament.  This  trans- 
lation was  revised  by 

2.  Arias  Montanus,  who  has  from  this  circumstance  been 
erroneously,  considered  as  a  new  translator  of  the  Bible 
into  the  Latin  Language.  Montanus's  aim  being  to 
translate  the  Hebrew  words  by  the  same  number  of  Latin 
words,  his  edition  may  rather  be  considered  as  a  gramma- 
tical commentary  than  a  true  version,  and  is  best  adap- 
ted to  suit  young  beginners  in  the  Hebrew  language. 

3.  The  translations  of  Thomas  Malvenda,  and  of  Car- 
dinal Cajetan  (who  was  fiot  the  author  of  that  which  bears 
his  name)  have  both  fallen  into  oblivion. 

4.  Houbigant's  Latin  Version  of  the  Old  Testament  is 
framed  according  to  the  corrected  Hebrew  Text,  publish- 
ed by  him  in  1753,  in  4  vols,  folio ;  a  work  which  has 
not  answered  the  high  expectations  entertained  of  it. 

IL  Modern  Latin  Versions  of  the  Bible,  executed  by 
Protestants 

1.  The  translation  of  Sebastian  Munster,  first  publish- 
ed in  1534,  is  considered,  upon  the  whole,  as  very  exact 
and  conformable  to  the  original. 

2.  The  Version  which  bears  the  name  of  Leo  Juda, 
though  commenced  by  him,  was  finished  by  others  :  it  is 
acknowledged  to  be  very  faithful.  It  was  first  published  in 
1543. 

3.  Sebastian  Chatillon  (better  known  by  the  name  of 
Castalio)  in  1551  published  a  version  of  the  Bible,  in  which 
he  aimed  at  rendering  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  into 
classical  Latin.  His  style  has  been  severely  censured,  as 
departing  from  the  simple  grandeur  of  the  sacred  originals. 

4.  The  Version  of  Francis  Junius  andlmmanual  Tre- 
mellius,  first  printed  in  1575,  is  held  in  great  estimation 
for  its  simplicity,  perspicuity,  and  fidelity. 

5.  The  Latin  Translation  of  Sebastian  Schmidt,  publish- 
ed in  1696,  is  strictly  literal. 

6.  The  Version  of  Professor  J.  A.  Dathe,  printed  be- 
tween the  years  1779  and  17S9,  is  deservedly  in  high 
repute  for  its  general  fidelity  and  excellence. 


•'"^f" 


92  ON  THE  MODERN  VERSIONS 

7.  The  Version  of  ihe  Old  Testament,  commenced  in 
1S16,  by  H.  A.  Schott  and  J.  F.  Winzer,  professes  to  be 
very  close.     The  Pentateuch  only  has  been  published. 

III.  Besides  the  preceding  new  modern  Latin  Versions, 
there  have  been  several  editions  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  so 
much  corrected  from  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  originals,  as 
in  some  degree  to  be  considered  new  translations.  Of 
this  number  are  the  Latin  Bibles  published  by  Isidore 
Clarius,  in  1542 ;  by  Paul  Eber,  in  1565 ;  and  by  Luke 
Osiander,  in  1578,  and  Andrew  Osiander  in  1600.  The 
edition  of  Clarius,  who  was  a  Romanist,  is  preferred  to 
those  of  the  other  three  Protestant  scholars. 

IV.  Of  the  Latin  Version  of  the  New  Testament  the 
following  are  the  principal : 

1.  Erasmus  claims  the  first  place.  His  version  was 
published  in  1516  ;  and  it  is  admitted  that  he  succeeded 
in  giving  a  clear  and  faithful  version  as  far  as  it  was  pos- 
sible, at  that  time.  He  varied  but  little  from  the  Vul- 
gate. 

2.  The  Latin  Version  of  Theodore  Beza,  published  in 
1556,  has  always  been  held  in  high  estimation  for  its 
fidelity. 

3.  The  Latin  Version  of  Leopoldo  Sebastiani,  which 
appeared  in  1817,  professes  to  be  formed  after  the  text 
of  the  Alexandrian  Manuscript,  collated  with  other  MSS. 
and  criiical  helps.  In  all  doctrinal  points  it  agrees  with 
the  tenets  of  the  Romish  Church. 


Section  II.— Versions  In  the  Modem  Languages  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
and  America. 

The  translations  of  the  Scriptures  into  the  different 
modern  languages,  which  are  spoken  in  the  four  quarters 
of  the  globe,  are  so  numerous,  that  it  is  extremely  difficult 
to  obtain  correct  accounts  of  all  of  them,  and  still  more 
difficult  to  compress  those  accounts  into  an  analysis  like 
the  present.  The  following  tables,  however,  will  exhibit 
at  one  view  the  principal  translations,  together  with 
the  dates  when  they  appeared,  the  authors  by  whom  they 
were  executed,  and  the  places  where  they  were  severally 


OF  THE  SCRIPTURES,  93 

printed.  The  first  of  these  tables  is  taken  from  the  second 
volume  of  the  author's  larger  work,  with  a  few  addi- 
tions; and  the  second  and  third  are  given,  by  permission, 
from  the  eighteenth  volume  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Me- 
tropolitana,  for  which  work  he  originally  composed  them. 


94 


ON  THE  MODERN  VERSIONS 


Table  I. 

VERSIONS   IN   THE   LANGUAGES   OP    MODERN    EUROPE. 


Translation. 

N.T. 

Bible. 

Author. 

Place  of  Printing 

(xermaQ 

1522 

1534 

Vlartin  Luther                    Wittemberg 

English 

1526 

1535 

Tindal,  and  Coverdale 

Uncertain 

French 

1535 

Robert  Olivetan 

Geneva 

Swedish 

1534 

1541 

Glaus  Petri 

Upsal,  Sweden 

Danish 

1524 

1550 

Palladius  and  others 

Copenhagen 

Dutch 

1560 

Italian 

. 

1562 

( Antonio  BrucioU'sre- ) 
I         visea  ?                   j 
Cassiodorus  de  Reyna 

Geneva 

Spanish 

1556 

1569 

Frankfort  orBasil 

Russian 

1519 

1691 

Cyril  and  Methodius 

Ostrog 

Helvetian  dialect 

1525 

1529 

Zuiich 

Lower  Saxon  dialect 

1533 

Lubeck 

Finnish 

154S 

1642 

Stockholm 

Croatian 

1553 

Tubingen 

Basque 

1571 

. 

Rochelle 

Welsh 

1567 

15S3 

London 

Hungarian    • 

1574 

1589 

Vienna 

Wemlish 

. 

15S4 

Witiemberg 

Icelandic 

, 

1584 

Thorlack 

Holum,  Iceland 

Pomeranian  diaiect  - 

. 

1598 

Barth 

Polish 

1596 

1596 

Several 

Bohemian 

1693 

Several 

Cralitz,  Moravia 

Hebrew 

1599 

. 

Elias  Hutter 

Nuremberg 

Modern  Greek 

1633 

. 

Maximus  Calliergl 

Geneva 

Wallachian  - 

1648 

. 

Belgrade 

Romanese     - 

. 

1657 

Schuol 

Lithuanian    - 

. 

1660 

Chylinsky 

London 

Turkish 

1666 

, 

Lazarus  Seaman 

Oxford 

Irish 

1602 

1695 

Dr.  Daniel,  Bp.  Bedell 

London 

Livonian 

1685 

1639 

Riga 

Esthonian 

1635 

1689 

Riga 

Esthonian,  dialect  of 

1688 

Riga 

Dorpatian  dialect 

17i7 

Orisons 

. 

1719 

Colre 

Upper  Lusatian 

1706 

1723 

Several 

Bautzen 

Lapponic 

1756 

Manks 

- 

1763 

BishopsWilson  andHil- 
desley, 

Gaelic 

1767 

1S02 

James    Stewart  and 
others 

Edinburgh 

Portuguese           -  \ 

1712 

1748-63 

Ferreira    d'Almeida, 
Cath. 

Amsterdam  and 
Batavia 

1781 

1793 

Antonio  Pereira,  Cath. 

Lisbon 

Spanish 

1793,4 

Padre  Scio,  Cath. 

Madrid 

Maltese 

1820 

• 

(  Rev.W.  Jowett,  M.A.  ) 
}    and  Signor  Cannolo  J 

Malta 

Samogitian 

18-20 

Petersburgh 

Juda>o. Polish 

18-21 

. 

N.  Solomon 

London 

Modern  Russ 

1821 

Ruflsian  Dialects,  viz 

Karelian  (Gospel 
of  Matthew) 

1830 

- 

.  Russian  Bible  Society 

Petersburgh 

Mordwassian    (4 
Gospels) 

1821 

Tcheremifl8ian,(4 
OospelB) 

1821 

OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 

Table  II. 

VERSIONS   IN   THE    LANGUAGES   OP    MODERN   ASIA. 


95 


riew  Testament,  or 

Bible,  or 

Old  Testa-i 

detached  Books 

ment,  or  detached! 

• 

tkereof. 

Books  thereof.      1 

Place  of 

Language. 

1 

Author. 

New 

Detached 

Bible,  or 

Detached 

Printing. 

Test. 

Books. 

Old  Tes. 

Books. 

1.  Arabic,   and 

its  derivative 

languages. 
Arabic, 

1816 



\2 

-     \ 

V.  Sabat  and  Rev. 
H.  Martyn,  B.D. 

>  Calcutta 

Persian 

-] 

4  Gosp. 
1804 

- 

Lt.Col.  Colebrooke 

) 

1815  ' 

— 

Rev.  H.  Martyn 

Petersburgh 

Pushtoo 

1818 

- 

-  \ 

Gen.  Lev. 
1822 

JohnLeyden,M.D. 
and  others. 

i  Serampore 

Bulocha 

- 

( 4  Gosp. 
i     1816 

- 

- 

■2.  Sanscrit, 

and    its    de- 

rivative lan- 

guages. 

Sanscrit, 

1808 

— 

1811-18 

— 

SikhorPun- 
jabee 

|l811 
1819 

— 

- 

Pent.  1818 

Assamese 



— 

— 

Kashmiree 

1819 

— 

— 

— 

Wutcii,      or 

hsi9 

1820 
1819 

Multanee 

""" 

^~ 

— 

Guzerattee 
Bikaneer 

— 

z 

— 

Baptist      ) 
Missionaries  ) 

Serampore 

Kunkuna 

1S18 

__ 

__ 



Maruwar 

1822 

— 





Oojuvinee 

1822 

— 





Bundelkun- 

dee 

J1822 
^822 

— 

— 

— 

Nepaulese 

— 





Pent,  and 

Mahratta 

1807 

Hist.  Bks. 

1312.-15 

Pnt.  Hist. 

Hindee 

1812 

— 

and  Poet. 
Books, 
1806-12 

. 

Hindoostan- 

i- 

1303-14 
1801 

( Danish  Mission 
I     Benj.  Schultz 
Rev.  H.  Martyn 
(  Baptist  Mission- 
I     aries 

I  Halle 

hee 

"Bengalee       i 

- 

1801-05 

Ps.  1747 

Calcutta 
Serampore 

Orissa 

1807 

— 

1809-14 

— 

Canarese 

1820 

— 

_ 

Rev.  W.  Hands 

Tamul 

1715 

- 

1723-38 

Danish  Miss.    ) 

^     Ziegenbcilg,  \ 

and  Schultz  ) 

Tranquebar 

Telinga  or  ? 
Telogoo  S 

_     i 

Gosp.  of 
Mark, 

\- 

_ 

M.  Des  Granges 

5  Vizagapa- 
}     tarn 

I 

1812 

)           ( 

Gen.  Ex. 

Fybrantz  and 

C 

1771-80 

- 

and  Levit. 

Phillipz 

•  Colombo 

Cingalese  < 

( 

1771-83 

( Mr.  W.  Tolfrey 
I     and  others 

? 

1820 

_ 

— 

Malay 

1668 

— 

1731.33 

- 

Various  Persons  \ 

Amsterdam 
St  Batavia 

96 


ON  THE  MODERN  VERS-lONa 

Table  II. — continued. 


New  Testament,  or 

Bible,  or 

Old  Testa-i 

detached  Books 

ment,  or  detached 

Langiiare. 

thereof. 

Books  thereof. 

Author. 

Place  of 

New 

Detached 

Bible,  orlDetached 

Printing. 

1     Test. 

Books. 

OldTes. 

Books. 

■    1309- U 

— 

1313-21 

— 

Rev.Dr.Marshman 

Serarapore 

3.  Chinese     < 

lSll-13- 
16 

- 

1815-20 

- 

(  Rev.Dr.Morrison 
I  &.  Rev.Mr.  Milne 

I  Canton 

4.  Other  Asia 

tic  Versions 

Formosan 
Tartar 

1313 

Matt,  and 
John  1661 

\z 

Psal.  1815 

Robert  Junius 
Edin.  Soc.  Mission 

Amsterdam 
(  Harass  & 
i  Astrachan 
Astrachan 

Orenburg   ) 
Tartar         S 

1820 

- 

- 

- 

Ditto 

Calrnuc       \ 
Tartar     \ 

Montgolian  } 
Tartar     \ 

1315-20 

_ 

— 

— 

Moray.  Mission    | 

:J 

Matt,  and 

\- 

:  1 

Two  Mongolian  ( 

Petersburgh 

Luke  1315 

Chieftains         J 

Georgian 

— 

1743 

Unknown 

Moscow 

Oiaheitean  or 

{    1813-35 

(  Missionaries  of 
i     the  Lond.  Soc. 

Eimeo  and 

Tahitan 

Tahiti 

Table  III. 

VERSION 

3  IN  THE  LANGUAGES  OF  MODERN  AFRICA  AND  AMERICA. 

New  Testament,  or 

Bible,  or  Old  Testa- 

1 

detached   Books 

ment, or  detached 

thereof. 

Books  thereof. 

Language. 

Author. 

Place  of 

New      1  Detached 

Bible,  or 

Detached 

Printing 

Test. 

Books. 

OldTes. 

Books. 

'tfljrican. 

) 

Gosp.  of 

Bullom. 

-  1 

Matt. 
1816 

~ 

-*- 

Rev.O.Nylanderi 
1 

Amharic,     a 
dialect     of 
Ahysb'inia 

i    1822 

- 

-  1 

M.    Asselin     de  | 
Cherville           J 

London 

Amirican    In- 

il'inn. 
Virginian 

1661 

— 

1663 

~ 

Rev.  John  Eliot    J 

Cambridge 
New  Eng. 

Delaware 

~       ' 

SF.pist.    1) 

of  John    ,  ■   - 
1818       |) 

- 

C.  F.  Denke 

New-York 

InOian-MassS- 
chusctt 

- 

Go.sp.  of  1  ) 
John       >   — 
1709        ) 
Matt.       ■) 
Mark,  &  '  1 
John        f 
17S7,  1904    J 

Psal.  1709 

( Experience 
\     Mayhew 

Rev.  Mr.  Freeman 

Boston,  New 
England 

Mohawk 

—     i 

Capt.  Brant 
Cupt.  Norton 

V  London 

Esquimaux 

1809-1319 

— 

- 

— 

Moravian  Mission 

Oreenlaniliiih 

1799 

— 



Ditto 

Wft  Indian. 

( Copenha 
\     gen 

Creolese 

1781 

— 

— 

— 

Unknown 

OF  THE  SCRIPTURES.  97 

Of  the  numerous  versions  noticed  in  the  preceding  ta- 
bles, those  are  most  interesting  to  the  reader,  which  have 
been  executed  in  our  vernacular  tongue  :  a  few  particu- 
lars, therefore,  respecting  the  different  translations  into  the 
English  language,  which  have  been  made  at  different 
times,  will  appropriately  conclude  this  section. 

The  earliest  English  translation,  known  to  be  extant, 
was  made  by  an  unknown  individual,  and  is  placed  by 
Archbishop  Usher  to  the  year  1290.  Of  this  there  are 
three  manuscript  copies  preserved  in  the  Bodleian  Libra- 
ry, and  in  the  Libraries  of  Christ's  Church  and  Queen's 
Colleges,  Oxford.  Towards  the  close  of  the  following 
century,  John  de  Trevisa,  vicar  of  Berkeley,  in  Glouces- 
tershire, is  said  to  have  translated  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments into  the  English  tongue,  at  the  request  of  his  pa- 
tron, Lord  Berkeley  :  but  as  no  part  of  this  work  appears 
ever  to  have  been  printed,  the  translation  ascribed  to  him 
is  supposed  to  have  been  confined  to  a  few  texts,  which 
were  painted  on  the  walls  of  his  patron's  chapel,  at  Ber- 
keley Castle,  or  which  are  scattered  in  some  parts  of  his 
writings  ;  several  copies  of  which  are  known  to  exist  in 
manuscript.  Nearly  contemporary  with  him,  was  the  cele- 
brated John  Wickliffe,  who,  about  the  year  1380,  transla- 
ted the  entire  Bible  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  :  the  New 
Testament  of  Wickliffe  was  published  in  folio  by  Mr. 
Lewis  in  1731  ;  and  was  handsomely  re-edited  in  quarto, 
in  1810,  by  the  Rev.  Henry  Hervey  Baber,  one  of  the 
librarians  of  the  British  Museum,  who  prefixed  a  valuable 
memoir  of  this  "  Apostle  of  England,"  as  Wickliffe  has 
sometimes  been  called. 

The  hrst  printed  edition  of  any  part  of  the  Scriptures 
in  English  was  of  the  New  Testament,  at  Hamburgh,  in 
the  year  1526.  It  was  translated  by  William  Tindal,  or 
Tyndale,  with  the  assistance  of  John  Fry  and  William 
Roye :  the  whole  of  this  impression  (with  the  exception, 
it  is  said,  of  a  single  copy,)  being  bought  up  and  burnt  by 
Tonstal,  Bishop  of  London,  and  Sir  Thomas  More,  Tindal 
put  forth  a  new  edition  in  1527,  and  a  third  in  1528  ; 
and,  two  years  after,  his  translation  of  the  Pentateuch  ap- 
peared at  Hamburgh,  with  another  edition  of  his  Testa- 
ment. In  1535  was  published  the  translation  of  Miles 
Coverdale,  great  part  of  which  was  Tindal's ;  and  two 
9 


gg  ON  THE  MODERN  VERSIONS 

years  after,  John  Rogers,  martyr,  (who  had  assisted  Tin- 
dal  in  his  biblical  labours,)  edited  a  Bible,  probably  at 
Hamburgh,  under  the  assumed  name  of  Thomas  Matthews, 
whence  it  is  generally  known  by  the  name  of  Matthews's 
Bible.  A  revised  edition  of  this  translation,  corrected  by 
Cranmer  and  Coverdale,  was  printed  at  London,  in  1539, 
by  Grafton  and  Whitchurch,  in  large  folio,  and  from  its 
size  is  usually  denominated  the  great  bible.  No  new 
version  was  executed  during  the  reign  of  Edward  \I, ; 
though  several  editions  were  printed  both  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments. 

During  the  sanguinary  reign  of  Queen  Mary,  Miles 
Coverdale,  John  Knox,  Christopher  Goodman,  and  other 
English  exiles,  who  had  taken  refuge  at  Geneva,  publish- 
ed a  new  translation,  between  the  years  1557  and  1560, 
with  short  annotations,  inculcating  the  doctrines  espoused 
by  Calvin.  The  New  Testament  of  this  edition  was  the 
first  in  English,  which  was  divided  into  verses.  The  Ge- 
neva Bible  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  Puritans  ;  and,  in 
the  course  of  little  more  than  thirty  years  afterwards,  not 
fewer  than  tiiirty  editions  of  it  were  printed  in  various 
sizes,  principally  by  the  royal  printers.  This  translation 
is  allowed  to  possess  considerable  merit,  for  its  general 
fidelity  and  pers[)icuity.  Eight  years  after  the  comide- 
tion  of  the  Geneva  Bible,  a  new  version  was  published, 
with  two  prefaces,  by  Archbishop  Parker,  now  generally 
termed  the  B'mhops^  Bible,  from  the  circumstance  of  eight 
of  the  translators  being  bishops  :  although  this  translation 
was  read  in  the  churches,  the  Geneva  Bible  was  generally 
preferred  in  families. 

In  1582,  the  Roman  Catholics  published  in  4to.  an  En- 
glish translation  of  the  New  Testtiment  at  Rheims,  and 
of  the  Old  Testament  at  Douay,  in  IGOD-IO,  in  2  vol- 
umes 4to.  It  was  crowded  with  barbarous  and  foreign 
terms,  calculated  to  perplex  rather  than  to  dilTuse  the  light 
of  trutii. 

The  last  English  version,  which  remains  to  be  noticed, 
is  the  translrition  now  in  use,  which  is  connnonly  called 
Kini:  .Tamcs's  Bibb*.  Slioriiy  after  his  accession  to  the 
thntiic  ill  1003,  several  objections  being  made  to  the  En- 
glish Bible,  tlic;  KiiiLS  at  iIm!  Conference  held  at  Hampton 
Court  in  the  following  vear,  commanded  that  a  new  ver- 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE   SCRIPTURES.  99 

sion  snould  be  undertaken,  and  fifty-four  men,  of  distin- 
guished learning  and  piety,  were  appointed  to  this  im- 
portant labour :  but,  before  it  was  begun,  seven  of  the 
persons  were  either  dead,  or  had  declined  the  task. 
Such  of  them  as  survived  till  the  commencement  of  the 
work,  being  ranged  under  six  divisions,  entered  upon  their 
labour  in  1607,  and  completed  it  in  1610;  it  was  then 
revised  by  a  committee  of  six  of  the  translators,  and  final- 
ly reviewed  by  Bishop  Bilson  and  Doctor  Smith  ;  the 
latter  prefixed  the  arguments,  and  wrote  the  preface. 
This  translation,  generally  known  by  the  name  of  King 
James's  Bible,  was  first  printed  in  1611,  and  is  that  now 
universally  adopted  wherever  the  English  language  is  spo- 
ken. The  edition,  generally  reputed  to  be  the  most  cor- 
rect, is  that  of  Oxford,  in  quarto  and  folio,  1769,  printed 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Blayney  : 
the  text  was  carefully  collated  with  several  correct  edi- 
tions, and  the  punctuation  amended  ;  the  summaries  of 
chapters  and  running  titles  at  the  top  of  each  page  were 
also  corrected,  and  30,495  new  references  were  inserted 
in  the  margin.  From  the  singular  pains  bestowed,  in 
order  to  render  this  edition  as  accurate  as  possible,  it  has 
hitherto  been  considered  the  standard  edition^  from  which 
all  subsequent  impressions  have  been  executed.  Notwith- 
standing, however,  the  great  labour  and  attention  bestow- 
ed by  Dr.  Blayney,  his  edition  must  now  yield  the  palm 
of  accuracy  to  the  very  beautiful  and  correct  editions  pub- 
lished by  Messrs.  Eyre  and  Strahan,  His  Majesty's  Prin- 
ters, but  printed  by  Mr.  Woodfall  in  1806,  and  again  in 
1813  in  quarto  ;  as  not  fewer  than  one  hundred  and  six- 
teen errors  were  discovered  in  collating  the  edition  of 
1806  with  Dr.  B.'s,  and  one  of  these  errors  was  an  omis- 
sion of  considerable  importance.  Messrs.  Eyre  and  Stra- 
han's  editions  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  approaching 
as  near  as  possible  to  what  bibliographers  term  an  imma' 
culate  text. 

Of  all  modern  versions,  the  present  authorised  English 
translation  is,  upon  the  whole,  undoubtedly  the  most  ac- 
curate and  faithful ;  the  translators  having  seized  the  very 
spirit  of  the  sacred  writers,  and  having  almost  every  where 
expressed  their  meaning  with  a  pathos  and  energy  that 
have  never  been  rivalled  by   any   subsequent   versions 


100  VARIOUS  READINGS 

either  of  the  Old  or  the  New  Testament.  "  Its  style  is 
incomparably  superior  to  any  thing  which  might  be  ex- 
pected from  the  finical  and  perverted  taste  of  our  own 
age.  It  is  simple  ;  it  is  harmonious  ;  it  is  energetic  ;  and, 
which  is  of  no  small  importance,  use  has  made  it  familiar 
and  time  has  rendered  it  sacred."* 


CHAPTER  VI. 

OP  THE  VARIOUS  READINGS  OCCURRING  IN  THB  OLD  AND  NBW  TKSTAMBNTS. 

I.  Origin  and  Nature  of  Various  Readings. 

The  Old  and  New  Testaments,  in  common  with  all 
other  ancient  writings,  being  preserved  and  diffused  by 
transcription,  the  admission  of  mistakes  was  unavoidable : 
which,  increasing  with  the  multitude  of  copies,  necessari- 
ly produced  a  great  variety  of  different  readings. 

Among  two  or  more  different  readings,  one  only  can 
be  the  true  reading  ;  the  rest  must  either  be  wilful  cor- 
ruptions, or  the  mistakes  of  the  copyist.  As  it  is  often 
difficult  to  distinguish  the  genuine  from  the  spurious, 
■whenever  the  smallest  doubts  can  be  entertained,  they  all 
receive  the  appellation  of  Various  Readings:  but,  where 
a  transcriber  has  evidently  written  falsely,  they  receive 
the  name  of  errata. 

II.  Sources  of  Various  Readings. 

As  all  manuscripts  were  either  dictated  to  copyists,  or 
transcribed  by  them  :  and,  as  all  these  persons  were  not 
supernaturally  guarded  against  the  possibility  of  error, 
different  readings  would  naturally  be  produced,  1.  By 
the  negligence  or  mistakes  of  the  transcribers  ;  to  which 
we  may  add,  2.  The  existence  of  errors  or  imperfections 
in  the  manuscript  copied  ;  3.  Critical  emendations  of  the 
text  made  by  the  copyist  without  any  authority  ;  and  4. 
Wilful  corruptions  made  to  serve  the  purposes  of  a  party. 
Mistakes  thus  produced  in  one  copy,  would  of  course  be 
propagated  through  all  succeeding  copies  made  from  it, 
each  of  which  might  have  peculiar  faults  of  its  own  ;  so 
that  various  readings  would  thus  be  increased,  in  propois 
tiqn  to  the  number  of  transcripts  made. 

•  Bishop  MWdJeton  on.  the  Greek  article,  p.  SaS-. 


VARIOUS  READINGS.  lOJ 

III.  The  means  by  which  the  true  reading  is  to  be  de- 
termined are,  1.  Manuscripts  ;  2.  The  most  ancient,  and 
best  Editions  ;  3.  Ancient  Versions  ;  4.  Parallel  Passa- 
ges, (which,  being  an  important  help  to  interpretation,  are 
noticed  again  in  a  subsequent  page  ;)  5.  Quotations  made 
from  the  Scriptures  in  the  Writings  of  the  early  Fathers 
of  the  Christian  Church  ;  and  6.  Conjectural  Criticisms. 
All  these  sources  are  to  be  used  with  great  judgment  and 
caution  ;  and  the  common  reading  ought  not  to  be  reject- 
ed but  upon  the  strongest  evidence. 

IV.  Infidels  have  endeavoured  to  shake  the  faith  of 
less  informed  Christians,  by  raising  objections  against  the 
number  of  various  readings.  The  unlettered  Christian, 
however,  need  not  be  under  any  apprehension  that  they 
will  diminish  the  certainty  of  his  faiih.  Of  all  the  many 
thousand  various  readings  that  have  been  discovered, 
none  have  been  found  that  affect  our  faith,  or  destroy  a 
single  moral  precept  of  the  Gospel.  They  are  mostly  of 
a  minute  and  trifling  nature  :  and  by  far  the  greatest 
number  make  no  alteration  whatever  in  the  sense.  Such 
are  Aa/?«J  ifiaBid)  for  AamJ  (David  ;)  SoXo/iw^/ra  (SolomonTa) 
for  LoXoiiowa  [SoLomoisa)  Solomon;  Kayw  {kago)  for  Kai  eyoy 
(kai  ego)  (  ^fj^  for  and  I ;)  Isai^a^ir  (NazareT)  for  Na^>£0 
(NazareTu)  Nazareth ;  which,  with  many  others,  may  be 
used  indifferently. 


CHAPTER  VII 

ON  THE  Q,UOTATrON8  FROM  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  IN  THE  NEW. 

A  CONSIDERABLE  difference  of  opinion  exists  among 
some  learned  men,  whether  the  evangelists  and  other 
writers  of  the  New  Testament  quoted  the  Old  Testament 
from  the  Hebrew,  or  from  the  venerable  Greek  versions 
usually  called  the  Septuagint.  From  an  actual  collation 
of  the  passages  thus  cited,  (which  is  given  at  length  in 
Hebrew,  Greek,  and  English,  in  the  author's  larger  work,) 
it  appears,  that,  though  the  sacred  writers  of  the  New 
Testament  have  in  many  instances  quoted  from  the  He- 
brew Scriptures;  yet  they  have  very  frequently  made  their 
citations  from  the  Septuagint,  because  it  was  generally 

9* 


102  ON  THE  QUOTATIONS  PROM 

known  and  read  :  and  as  the  apostles  wrote  for  the  use  of 
communities,  whose  members  were  ignorant  of  Hebrew, 
it  was  necessary  on  that  account  thai  they  should  refer  to 
the  Greek  version.  But  where  this  materially  varied 
from  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  they  either 
gave  the  sensa  of  the  passage  cited,  in  their  own  words, 
or  took  as  much  of  the  Septuagint  as  was  necessary,  in- 
troducmg  the  requisite  alterations. 

Difficulty  sometimes  arises,  with  respect  to  the  appli- 
cation of  the  quotations  made  by  the  apostles  and  evan- 
gelists; when  they  are  applied  to  a  purpose  to  which  ihey 
seem  to  have  no  relation,  according  to  their  original 
design.  This  difficulty  is  occasioned  by  the  writers  of 
the  New  Testament  making  quotations  from  the  Old,  with 
very  different  views.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  dis- 
tinguish accurately  between  such  quotations  as,  being 
merely  borrowed,  are  used  in  the  words  of  the  writer 
himself,  and  such  as  are  quoted  in  proof  of  a  doctrine,  or 
the  completion  of  a  prophecy 

The  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New 
are  generally  introduced  by  certain  formulae,  such  as.  That 
it  might  be  fulfilled  —  As  it  is  written  —  &c.,  and  various 
rules  have  been  framed  in  order  to  account  for  their  ap- 
plication. They  may,  however,  be  referred  to  the  four 
following  classes,  viz. : 

I.  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New,  in 
which  the  things  predicted  are  literally  accomplished. 

Direct  Prophecies  are  those  which  relate  exclusively  to 
Christ  and  the  Gospel,  and  cannot  legitimately  be  taken 
in  any  other  sense  ;  and  the  Scripture  is  said  to  be  ful- 
filled in  the  literal  sense,  when  that  event  which  it 
foretells  is  accomplished.  The  following  table  exhibits 
the  principal  quotations  which  belong  to  this  class  : 

Oen.xii.  3.xviii.  IS.XXii.lB.quotedlnActsiii.  25.     Gal.  Hi.  8. 

fieri,  jfvii.  7.  19.  rxlj.  16,  17     -         -  Luke  i.  55.  72,  73,  74. 

Ueut.  xviii.  15.  19.  -        ■         •        •  Acts  lii.  22,  23. 

Pdttlm  ii.  1,  2. Acl3  Iv.  25,  26. 

Tsalm  il.  7.       -  ...  Acts  xli.  33.  Ileb.  1.  5.  v.  4. 

roalrnvill.  2.   ■  ...  Miilt.  xxi.  16. 

P.srilm  viii.  4. Heh.  11.  6— 8. 


Psalm  xvi.  8—11. 
Psulm  xvl.  10. 
Pfialni  xxU.  1. 

PBalrn  xxll.  IS. 

Phalm  xxll.  22. 


Acts  ii   25—28.  31. 

Acts  Xlii.  35. 

Matt,  xxvii.  -16.     Mark  xv.  34. 

Mall,  rxvil.  35.     Mark  xv.  34. 

Luke  xxiil.  34.     John  Xll.  24. 
Heb.  11.  12. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  IN  THE  NEW. 


105 


Psalm  xxxl  5. 
Psalm  xli.  9. 
Psalm  xlv.  6,  7. 
Psalm  Ixviii.  18. 

Psalm  Ixlx.  21. 

Psalm  Ixix.  25,  cix.  8. 
Psalm  xcv.  7 — 11.   - 
Psalm  cii.  25—27.   - 

Psalm  ex.  1.    - 


14, 


27.) 


Psalm  ex.  4.    -        •        ■ 
Psalm  cxviii.  22,  23. 

Psalm  exviii.  25,  26. 

Psalm  exxxii.  11.  17. 

Isa.  vii.  14.       -        - 

Isa.  ix.  1,  2. 

Isa.  ix.  7.  (with  Baja.  vii 

Isa.  xi.  10.        -        -        - 

Isa.  XXV.  8.       •        -        - 

Isa.  xxvii.  9,  and  iix.  20,  21 

Isa.  xxviii.  16.  (with  Joel  ii.  32.) 

Isa.  xl.  3 — 5.     • 

Isa.  xliii.  1 — 4. 

Isa.  xlix.  6. 

Isa.  liii.  1. 

Isa.  liii.  3—6. 

Isa.  liii.  4—6.  11. 

Isa.  liii.  4. 

Isa.  liii.  9. 

Isa.  liii.  12. 

Isa.  liv.  13. 

Isa.  Iv.  3. 

Jer.  xxxi.  31—34, 

Ilosea  i.  10. 

Hosea  ii.  23. 

Joel  ii.  28—32.  (in  the  Hebrew,  iii, 

1-4.) 
Amos  ix.  11,"  12. 
Micah  V.  2. 
Habak.  i.  5. 
Haggai  ii.  6.     - 
Zech,  ix.  9.      - 
Zech.  xi.  13.     - 
Zech.  xii.  10.   - 
Zech.  xiii.  7.   - 
Mai.  iii.  1. 

Mai.  iv.  5,  6.    - 


quoted  in  Luke  xxiil,  46. 

John  xiii.  18.    Acts  1.  16. 

Heb.  i.  8,  9. 

Eph.  iv.  7,  8. 
{ John  xix.    28,   29.     Matt,  xxvil.  48, 
(     Mark  xv.  36.  and  Luke  xxiil.  36. 

Acts  i.  20. 

Heb.  iii.  7—11,  iv.  3.  5—7. 

Heb.  i.  10—12. 
C  Matt.  xxii.  44.      Mark  xii.  36.    Luke 
<      XX.  42.      Acts  ii.  34    35.      Heb.  i. 
(      13. 

Heb.  V.  6. 
^  Matt.  xxi.  42.      Mark  xii.  10.    Luke 
(     XX.  17.     Acts  iv.  U. 

Malt.  xxi.  9.    Mark  xi.  9.  John  xii.  13. 

Luke  i.  69.     Acts  ii.  30. 

Matt.  i.  23. 

Matt.  iv.  15,  16. 

Luke  i.  32,  33. 

Rom.  XV.  12. 

1  Cor.  XV.  54. 

Rom.  xi.  26,  27, 

Rom.  ix.  33.  and  1  Pet.  ii.  6. 

Matt.  iii.  3.    Mark  i.  3.    Lukeiii.  4— 6. 

Matt.  xii.  17—21. 

Acts  xiii.  47,  and  xxvi.23.  Luke  ii.32. 

John  xii.  38.    Rom.  x.  16. 

Acts  xxvi.  22,  23. 

1  Pet.  ii.  24,  25. 

Matt.  viii.  17. 

1  Pet.  ii.  22. 

Mark  XV.  28.    Luke  xxii.  37. 

John  vi.  45. 

Acts  xiii.  34. 

Heb.  viii.  8—12.  x.  16,  17. 

Rom.  ix.  26. 

Rom.  ix.  25.     Pet.  ii.  10. 


Acts  ii.  16-21. 

Acts  XV.  16,  17. 

Matt.  ii.  5,-  6.     John  vii.  42. 

Acts  xiii.  40. 

Heb.  xii.  26. 

Matt.  xxi.  4,  5.     John  xii.  14.  16. 

Matt,  xxvii.  9,  10. 

John  xix.  37. 

Matt.  xxvi.  31.  56.     Mark  xiv.  27.  50, 

Matt.  xi.  10.  Marki.  2.  Luke  vii.  27. 
I  Matt.  xi.  13,  14.  xvii.  10—13.  Mark 
'      ix.  11—13.     Luke  i.  16,  17. 


II.  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New,  in 
which  that  is  said  to  have  been  done,  of  which  the  Scrip- 
tures have  not  spoken  in  a  literal,  but  in  a  spiritual  sense. 

There  are  citations  out  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
New,  in  a  mediate  and  typical,  or  spiritual  sense,  respecfe- 
ing  Christ  and  his  mystical  body,  the  Church.  The 
Scripture  is  therefore  said  to  be  fulfilled,  when  that  is 


104 


ON  THE  QUOTATxOiNrf  FROM 


accomplished  in  the  antitype  which  is  written  concerning 
the  type.  Thus,  in  John,  xix.  36,  we  read,  These  things 
were  done  that  the  Scripture  should  be  fulfilled,  —  "a 
bone  of  him  shall  not  be  broken."  These  words,  which 
were  originally  written  of  the  paschal  lamb,  (Exod.  xii. 
46.  Numb.  ix.  12.)  are  said  to  be  fulfilled  in  Christ,  who 
is  the  antitype  of  that  lamb.  Additional  examples  of  the 
same  kind  will  be  found  in  the  annexed  passages 


Gen.  xiv.  18,  20.  cited  and  applied  in 

Gen.  XV.  5. 

Gen.  xvi.  15.    - 

Gen.  xvii.  4.     - 

Gen.  xviii.  10. 

Gen.  xxi.  1 — 3. 

Gen.  xxi.  12.    ■ 

Gen.  XXV.  23.  - 

Exod.  xii,  46.    Numb.  Ix.  12. 

Exod.  xvi.  13—15.  - 

Exod.  xvii.  6.     Numb.  is.  11 

Exod.  xix.  6.    - 

Exod.  xxiv.  8. 

I.evit.  xxvi.  11,  12. 

Numb.  xxi.  8,  9.      - 

Deul.  xxi.  23.  .        .        . 

Deut.  xxxii.  21.       -        • 

2  Sam.  vii.  14. 

Psalm  ii.  9.       - 

Psalm  viii.  4.  • 

Psalm  viii.  6.  - 

Psalm  xviii.  49. 

Psalm  XXXV.  19.  Ixlx.  4.  and 

Psalm  XI.  6—8. 

Psalm  Ixix.  9. 

Psalm  civ.  4.  -        • 

Isa.  xl.  6,  7.      • 

Isa.  lii.  7.  and  Nahum  i.  15. 

Isa.  llv.  1.        -        -        • 

Isa.  iviv.  4.      -        -        ■ 

Hosea,  xi.  1, 

Jonah  i.  17.  11 

Habak.  11.  3. 

Habak.  11.  4. 


and  ill.  5. 


Heb.  vii.  1—10. 

Rom.  iv.  18. 

Gal.  iv.  22. 

Rom.  iv.  17. 

Rom.  ix.  9. 

Gal.  iv.  22,  &c. 

Rom.  ix.  7. 

Rom.  ix.  10. 

John  xix,  36, 

Jolin  vi.  31.  49.    1  Cor.  X.  3. 

1  Cor.  X.  4. 

1  Pel.  ii.  9. 
Heb.  ix.  20. 

2  Cor.  vi.  16. 
John  iii.  14. 
Gal.  iii.  13. 
Rom.  x.  19. 
Heb.  i.  5. 
Rev.  ii.  27. 
Heb.  ii.  6—8. 
1  Cor.  XV.  27. 
Rom.  XV.  9. 

Cix.  3.   John  xv.  25. 
Heb.  X.  6,  7. 
John  ii.  17. 
Heb.  i.  7. 
1  Pet.  i.  24,  25. 
Rom.  X.  15. 
Gal.  iv.  27. 
1  Cor.  ii.  9. 
Matt.  ii.  15. 

Mat.  xii.  40,  41.  Lukc  xi.  30.  32. 
Heb.  X.  37. 
Rom.  i.  17.  Gal.  iU.  11.  Heb.  x  c 


III.  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New, 
in  which  a  thing  is  done  neither  in  a  literal  nor  in  a 
spiritual  sense,  according  to  the  fact  referred  to  in  the 
Scriptures,  but  is  similar  to  that  fact ;  in  other  words, 
where  the  passages  referred  to,  are  cited  in  the  way  of 
illustration. 

Numerous  passages  of  the  Old  Testament  are  cited  and 
applied  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  to  an  oc- 
currence, which  happened  in  their  time,  merely  on  account 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  IN  THE  NEW. 


105 


of  correspondence  and  similitude.  These  citations  are  not 
prophecies,  though  they  are  said  sometimes  to  be  fulfilled. 
This  method  of  explaining  Scripture  by  the  way  of  illus- 
tration, will  enable  us  to  solve  many  difficulties  relating 
to  the  prophecies.  Similar  instances,  are  to  be  found  in 
some  classic  authors. 

The  following  table  presents  a  list  of  the  passages,  thus 
quoted  from  the  Old  Testament,  by  the  writers  of  the 
New,  in  the  way  of  illustration : 


Gen.  XV.  5. 

Gen.  XV.  6. 

Gen.  xviii.  10. 
Gen.  xix.  15.  26. 
Gen.  xxi.  12. 
Gen.  XXV.  23. 
Gen.  XXV.  33. 
Gen.  xxvii.  28,  &C 
Exod.  ix.  16. 
Exod.  xxxii.  6.    - 
Exod.  xxxiii.  19. 
Lev.  xi.  45. 
Lev,  xviii.  5. 
Deut.  vi.  13. 
Deut.  vi.  16. 
Deut.  viii.  3. 
Deut.  XXV.  4. 
Deut.  xxvii.  26.  • 
Deul.  xxxii.  35.  - 
Deut.  xxxii.  36. 
Deut.  xxxii.  43.  - 
Josh.  i.  5.     - 

1  Sam.  xxl.  6.     • 

1  Kings  xix.  14.  18. 
Psalm  V.  10.  and  cxl. 
Psalm  X.  7.  - 
Psalm  xiv.  1—3.  and 
Psalm  xix.  4. 
Psalm  XX iv.  I.     - 
Psalm  xxvili.  16. 
Psalm  xxxii.  1,  2. 
Psalm  xxxlv.  12 — 16. 
Psalm  xxxvi.  1.  - 
Psalm  xliv.  22.    • 
Psalm  li.  4. 
Psalm  Ixix.  9, 
Psalm  Ixix.  22,  23. 
Psalm  Ixxviii.  2. 
Psalm  Ixxxii.  6. 
Psalm  cxii.  9. 
Psalm  cxvi.  10.   - 
Psalm  cxvii.  1.    - 
Psalm  cxviii.  6.  ■ 
Prov.  i.  16.  Isa.  lix.  78, 
Prov.  iii.  1 1,  12. 
Prov.  iii.  34. 


4. 

liii.  1 


cited  in    Rom.  iv.  3  8. 

^  Rom.  iv.  3.  Gal.  iii.  6.  and  James 
ii.  23. 
Rom.  ix.  9. 
Luke  xvii.  28,  29.  32. 
Rom.  ix.  7. 
Rom.  V.  12. 
Heb.  xii.  16. 
Heb.  xi.  20.  xii.  17. 
Horn.  ix.  7. 
I  Cor.  X.  7. 
Rom.  ix.  15. 
1  Pet.  i.  16. 

Rom.  X.  5.     Gal.  iii.  12. 
Matt.  iv.  10.    Luke  iv.  8. 
Matt.  iv.  7.     Luke  iv.  12. 
Luke  iv.  4. 
1  Tim.  V.  18. 


Matt.  iv.  4. 

1  Cor.  ix.  9 

Gal.  iii.  10. 

Rom.  xii.  1 

Heb.  X.  30. 

Rom.  XV.  10. 

Heb.  xiii.  5. 
Q  Matt,  xii.  3,  4. 
(     Luke  vi.  3,  4. 

Rom.  xi.  3,  4. 

Rom.  iii.  13. 

Rom.  iii.  14. 

Rom.  iii.  10—12. 

Rom,  X.  18. 

1  Cor.  X.  26. 

Rom.  X.  11. 

Rom.  iv.  7,  8. 

1  Pet.  iii.  JO— 12. 
Rom.  iii.  18. 
Rom.  viii.  36. 
Rom.  iii.  4. 
Rom.  XV.  3. 
Rom.  xi.  9,  10. 
Matt.  xiii.  35. 
John  X.  34. 

2  Cor.  ix.  9. 
2  Cor.  iv.  13 
Rom.  XV.  11. 
Heb.  xiii.  6. 
Rom.  iii.  15—17. 
Heb.  xii.  5,  6. 
James  iv.  6. 


Heb.  X.  30. 


Markii.  25j2S. 


106 


ON  THE  QUOTATIONS  FROM 


Prov.  X.  12.          •        •        -     cited  in     I  Pet.  iv.  8. 

Piov.  XXV.  21,22. 

Rom.  xii.  20. 

Prov.  xxvl.  11.    - 

1  Pet.  ii.  22. 

Isa.  i.  9. 

Rom.  ix.  29. 

John  Xii.  40.  Matt.  xiii.  14,  15. 
r      Luke  viii.  10.     Rom.  xi.  8 

Isa.  vi.  9, 10. 

Isa.  viii.  12,  13.   - 

1  Pet.  iii.  14,  15. 

Isa.  viii.  17,  18.            ... 

Heb.  ii.  13. 

Isa.  X.  22,  23.       .... 

Rom.  ix.  27,  28. 

Isa.  xxix.  10.       ...        - 

Rom.  xi,  8. 

Isa.  xxix.  13.       -        .        .        - 

Matt.  XV.  8,  9.    Mark  vii.  6. 

Isa.  xxix.  14. 

1  Cor.  i.  9. 

Isa.  xxix.  16,  and  xlv.  9.    ■ 

.    Rom.  ix.  20,  21. 

Isa.  Xlv.  23.          .... 

-    Rom.  xiv.  11.    Phil.  il.  10. 

Isa.  lii.  5.  with  Ezek.  xxxvi.  20. 

.     Rom.  ii.  24, 

Isa.  lii.  7.  and  Nalium  i.  15. 

.    Rom.  X.  15. 

Isa.  lii.  11,  12.      ...        - 

.     2  Cor.  vi.  17. 

Isa.  lii.  15. 

.     Rom.  XV.  21. 

^Matt.  xxi.  13.  Mark  XI.  17.  Luke 
■  I     xix.  46. 

Isa.  Ivl.  7.  and  Jar.  vil.  11. 

Isa.  Ixi.  1,  2. 

Luke  iv.  18.  19. 

Isa.  Ixv.  1,  2.       - 

Rom.  X.  20,  21. 

Isa.  Ixvi.  1,  2.      ■ 

Acti?  vii.  49,  50. 

Jer.  xxxi.  15.              ... 

Mall.  ii.  17,  18. 

Jer.    xxxi.  33.  and  xxxii.  38.  with  ^^  p,^,.  ^.   ,q 
2  Sam.  vii.  14.)                                     ^  -  i.oi.  vi.  lo. 

Hab.  ii.  4. Rom.  i.  17. 

Joel  ii.  32. Rom.  x.  13. 

Mai.  i.  2,  3. 

Rom.  ix.  13, 

IV.  Quotations  and  other  passages  from  the  Old  Tes- 
tament which  are  alluded  to  in  the  New. 

The  following  tahl6  presents  a  list  of  the  yrindpal  pas- 
sages of  this  description : 


Gen.  i.  6.  9, 

Gen.  i.  27. 

Gen.  il.  2,  3. 
Gen.  11.  7. 
Gen.  ii.  21,  22. 

Gfifn.  ii.  24. 

Gen.  ill.  6. 
Gen.  iii.  4,  13. 
Gen.  iii.  16. 
Gen.  iv.  4. 

Gen.  Iv.  8. 

Gen.  V.  24.      - 

Gen.  vl.  viL 

Gen.  xll.  1-4. 
Gen.  xlll.  15. 
Gen.  XV.  13,  14. 
Gen.  xvil.  10. 
Gen.  xvlli.  3.  xlx. 
Gen.  xvlii.  10. 
Gen.  xvill.  12. 
Gen.  xlx.  12. 


alluded  to  in    2  Pet.  iii.  5. 

^  Matt.  xix.  4.  Mark  x.  6.  1  Cor.  xi.  7. 
(     James  iii.  9. 

Heb.  iv.  4. 

1  Cor.  XV.  45. 

1  Cor.  xi.  8.  1  Tim.  ii.  13. 
( Matt.  xix.  5.  Mark  x.  7.  1  Cor.  vL  10. 
I     Eph.  V.  31. 

1  Tim.  ii.  14. 

2Cor.  xi.  3. 

1  Cor.  xiv.  34. 

Heb.  xi.  4. 
cMati.  xxiii.  35.  Luke -xl.  51.    1  John 
I     iii.  12.  Jude  verse  11. 

Heb.  xl.  5. 

Matt.  xxlv.  37,  38.  Luke  xvil.  26,  27. 
7.    1  Pet.  ill.  19,  20.  2  Pet 
ill.  6. 

Acta  vil.  5.  Heb.  .xl.  8. 

Rom.  I  v.  13. 

Acts  vil.  6,  7. 

Acta  vil.  8. 

Heb.  xlll.  2. 

Heb.  xl.  11. 

1  Fft.  iii.  fi. 

2  Pel.  11.  6.  Jude  verse  7. 


C  Matt,  xxlv 
\  Heb.  xl. 
i      11.  5.  ill. 


THE  OLD  TESTAJIENT  IN  THE  NEW. 


107 


Gen.  zzi.  12.      •       •  alluded  to  in 
Gen.  xlvi.  27. 
Gen.  xlvii.  31. 
Gen.  1.  24. 
Exod.  ii.  2.  11. 

Exod.  iii.  6. 

Exod.  xii.  12.  18. 
Exod.  xiv.  22. 
Exod.  xix.  12.  18,  19. 

Exod.  XX.  12—16.   Deut.  v.  16—20. 

Lev.  xiii.  2.  Numb,  viii,  16,  17.  xviii. 

15.  17.  

Lev.  xiv.  3,  4.  10. 

Lev.  xix.  12.  .        -        .        . 

Lev.  .xix.  18.  .        .        .        . 

Numb.  xi.  4,  -        .        .        . 

Numb.  xiv.  23.  29.  37.  &  xxvl  64,  65. 

Numb.  xxi.  4 — 6.        .        .        .        . 

Numb.  xxii.  23.  39.     - 

Deut.  xviii.  1.  .        .        .        . 

Deut.  xxiv.  1.  .        .        .        . 

Josli.  ii.  1.  vl.  22,  23.  .       -.        . 

Josh.  vi.  20.  ,        .        .        . 

Judges,  the  whole  book  generally, 

1  Sam.  viii.  5.  and  x.  1.  -        • 

1  Sam.  xiii.  14.  xv.  23.  xvi.  12,  13. 

1  Kings  xvii.  1.  and  xviii.  42 — 45 

1  Chion.  xxiil.  13. 

Psalm  xc.  4. 

Prov.  xxvii.  1. 

Isa.  xii.  3. 

Isa.  Ixvi.  24. 

Jer.  vi.  16. 

Lam.  iii.  45. 

Dan.  iii.  23—25 

Dan.  ix.  27.  xii. 

Hos.  xiii.  14. 

llos.  xiv.  2. 

Amos  V.  26,  27. 


Heb.  xi.  18. 

Acts  vii.  14. 

Heb.  xi.  21. 

Heb.  xi.  22. 

Heb.  xi.  23—27.  Acts  vii.  20—29. 
5  Mark  xii.  26.   Acts  vii.  31,  32.  Heb. 
(     xi.  16. 

Heb.  xi.  28. 

1  Cor.  X.  2.    Heb.  xi.  29. 

Heb.  xii.  18—20. 
^Matt.  xix.  18,  19.   Mark  x.  19.  Luke 
(     xviii.  20.  Rom.  xiii.  9.  James  ii.  2, 

^  Luke  ii.  23. 

Matt.  viii.  4.  Mark  i.  44.  Luke  v.  14. 

Matt.  V.  33. 

Matt.  V.  43.     Gal.  v.  14. 

1  Cor.  X.  6. 

Heb.  iii.  16, 17.    Jude  verse  5. 

1  Cor.  X.  9. 

2  Pet.  ii.  15,  16.  Jude  verse  lb 

1  Cor.  ix.  13. 

Matt.  V.  31.  Mark  x.  4.  Luke  xvi.  28. 
Heb.  xi.  31.  James  ii.  25. 
Heb.  xi.  30. 

Acts  xiii.  20.  Heb.  xL  32, 
Acts  xiii.  21. 
Acts  xiii.  22. 
James  v.  17, 18. 
Heb.  V.  4. 

2  Pet  iii.  8. 
James  iv.  13,  14 
John  vii.  38. 
IMark  ix.  44. 
Matt.  xi.  29. 
1  Cor.  iv.  13. 
Heb.  xi.  34. 

Matt  xxiv.  15.  MarkxiiL  14. 
1  Cor.  XV.  55. 
Heb,  xiii.  15. 
Acts  vii.  42,  43, 

Concerning  the  class  of  quotations  contained  in  the  pre- 
ceding table,  it  has  been  remarked,  that  when  the  inspi- 
red writers  quote  a  passage  from  the  Old  Testament, 
merely  in  the  way  of  allusion,  it  is  enough  that  the  words 
which  they  borrow,  emphatically  express  their  own  mean- 
ing. It  is  not  necessary  that  they  be  precisely  the  same 
with  those  of  the  passage  alluded  to,  nor  that  they  be  there 
used,  either  of  the  same  subject,  or  of  a  similar  subject. 
Thus,  Deut.  xxx.  12 — 14,  which  was  originally  written 
concerning  the  law,  is  by  Saint  Paul  accommodated  to 
the  Gospel,  (Rom.  x.  6 — 8,)  with  proper  variations  and 
explanations. 


108  ^N  THE  POETRY 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


ON  THK   POETRY   OP  THB   HEBREWB. 


I.  Nature  of  Hebrew  Poetry. 

The  diversity  of  style,  evident  in  the  different  books  of 
Scripture,  sufficiently  evinces  which  of  them  were  written 
in  prose,  and  which  are  poetical  compositions ;  though 
the  nature  of  the  Hebrew  verse  cannot  now  be  exactly 
ascertained.  The  grand  characteristic  of  Hebrew  Poetry, 
is  what  Bishop  Lowth  terms  Parallelism;  that  is,  a  cer- 
tain equality,  resemblance,  or  relationship,  between  the 
members  of  each  period  :  so  that,  in  two  lines  or  mem- 
bers of  the  same  period,  things  shall  answer  to  things,  and 
words  to  words,  as  if  fitted  to  each  other  by  a  kind  of 
rule,  or  measure.  Such  is  the  general  strain  of  Hebrew 
Poetry,  instances  of  which  occur  in  almost  every  part 
of  the  Old  Testament,  particularly  in  the  ninety-sixth 
psalm. 

II.  Gradations  of  the  poetical  parallelism. 

The  poetical  parallelism  has  much  variety  and  many 
gradations ;  which  may  be  referred  to  four  species,  viz. : 
Parallel  Lines  Gradational,  Parallel  Lines  Antithetic, 
Parallel  Lines  Synthetic,  and  Parallel  Lines  Introverted. 
An  example  or  two  of  each  of  these  shall  be  given,  which 
will  enable  the  attentive  reader  of  our  admirable  authori- 
sed version  readily  to  discover  others  as  they  arise  :  for, 
that  version  being  strictly  word  for  word  after  the  origi- 
nal, tlie  form  and  order  of  the  original  sentences  are  pre- 
served ;  and  this  circumstance  will  account  for  its  retain- 
ing so  much  of  a  poetical  cast,  notwithstanding  it  is  exe- 
cuted in  prose. 

1.  Parallel  Lines  Gradational  are  those  in  which  the 
second  or  responsive  clause  so  diversifies  the  preceding 
clauses,  as  generally  to  rise  above  it ;  sometimes  by  a  de- 
scending scale,  in  the  value  of  the  related  terms  and  pe- 
riods, but  in  all  cases  with  a  marked  distinction  of  mean- 
ing. This  species  of  parallelism  is  of  most  frequent  oc- 
currence, particularly  in  the  psalms  and  the  proj)hecies  of 
Isaiah.  The  following  example  is  given  from  the  evan- 
gelical prophet,  ch.  Iv.  6,  7. : 


OF  THE  HEBBEWS.  X09 

Seek  ye  Jehovah  [or,  the  Lord]  while  he  may  be  founds 

Call  ye  upon  him  while  he  is  near ; 

Let  the  wicked  forsake  his  way, 

And  the  unrighteous  man  his  thoughts : 

And  let  him  return  unto  Jehovah,  and  he  will  compassionate  him; 

And  unto  our  God  for  he  aboundeth  In  forgiveness. 

"In  the  first  line,  men  are  invited  to  seek  Jehovah,  not  knowing  where 
he  is,  and  on  the  bare  intelligence  that  he  may  be  found ;  in  the  second 
line,  having  found  Jehovah^  ihey  are  encouraged  to  call  upon  him  by  the 
assurance  that  he  is  near.  In  the  third  line,  the  wicked,  the  positive  and 
presumptuous  sinner,  is  warned  to  forsake  his  way,  his  habitual  course  of 
iniquity  ;  in  the  fourth  line,  the  unrighteous,  the  negatively  wicked,  is 
called  to  renounce  the  very  thought  of  sinning.  While,  in  the  last  line, 
the  appropriative  and  encouraging  title,  our  God,  is  substituted  for  the  aw- 
ful name  Jehovah,  and  simple  compassion  is  heightened  into  overflowing 
mercy  and  forgiveness."  (Bp.  Jebb's  Sacred  Literature,  pp.  37,  38.)  See 
further  instances  in  Isa.  li.  1.  47.  Joel  ii.  7.  Psalm  i.  1.  xxi.  1,  2.  and' 
xxiv.  3,  4. 

2.  Parallel  Lines  Antithetic  are  those  in  which  two 
lines  correspond  one  with  another,  by  an  opposition  of 
terms  and  sentiments  ;  when  the  second  is  contrasted 
with  the  first.,  sometimes  in  expressions,  sometimes  in 
sense  only  This  is  not  confined  to  any  particular  form. 
Accordingly,  the  degrees  of  antithesis  are  various,  from 
an  exact  contraposition  of  word  to  word,  sentiment  to 
sentiment,  singulars  to  singulars,  plurals  to  plurals,  down 
to  a  general  disparity,  with  something  of  a  contrariety  in 
the  two  propositions.     Thus,  Prov.  ch.  x.  1. 

A  wise  son  rejoiceth  his  father  : 

But  a  foolish  son  is  the  grief  of  his  mother. 

Here  every  word  has  its  opposite,  the  terms  "father"  and  "mother"  be- 
ing relatively  opposite. 

3.  Parallel  Lines  Constructive  are  those  in  which  the 
parallelism  consists  only  in  the  similar  form  of  construc- 
tion ;  wherein  word  does  not  answer  to  word,  and  sen- 
tence to  sentence,  as  equivalent,  or  opposite  :  but  there  is 
a  correspondence  and  equality,  between  the  different  pro- 
positions in  respect  of  the  shape  and  turn  of  the  whole 
sentence,  and  of  the  constructive  parts  ;  such  as  noun  an- 
swering to  noun,  verb  to  verb,  member  to  member,  nega- 
tive to  negative,  interrogative  to  interrogative.  This  form 
of  parallelism  admits  of  great  variety,  the  parallelism  be- 
ing sometimes  more,  sometimes  less  exact,  and  some- 
times hardly  at  all  apparent.  Psalm  xix.  7 — 11,  will 
furnish  a  beautiful  instance  of  this  description  of  poetical 
parallelism. 

10 


no  ON  THE  POETRY 

The  law  of  Jehovah  is  perfect,  restoring  the  soul; 

The  testimony  of  Jehovah  is  sure,  niaking  wise  the  simple 

The  precepts  of  Jehovah  are  riglit,  rejuicing  the  heart: 

The  commandment  of  Jehovah  is  clear,  enlightening  the  eyes: 

The  fear  of  Jehovah  is  pure,  enduring  forever; 

The  judgments  of  Jehovah  are  truth,  they  are  just  altogether; 

More  desirable  than  gold,  or  than  much  fine  gold. 

And  sweeter  than  honey  or  the  dropping  of  honey  combs. 

4.  Parallel  Lines  Introverted^  or  Introverted  ParaU 
lelisms,  are  stanzas  so  constructed,  that  whatever  be  the 
number  of  lines,  the  first  line  shall  be  parallel  with  the 
last ;  the  second  with  the  penultimate,  or  last  hut  one  ; 
and  so  throughout,  in  an  order  that  looks  inward,  or,  to 
borrow  a  military  phrase,  from  ilanks  to  centre.  Dr. 
Jebb,  Bishop  of  Limerick,  has  illustrated  tliis  definition 
with  numerous  apposite  examples,  from  which  the  follow- 
ing has  been  selected. 

"  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day ; 

Jehovah  shall  make  a  gathering  of  his  fruit 
From  the  flood  of  the  river ; 
To  the  stream  of  Egypt : 
And  ye  shall  be  gleaned  up,  one  by  one  ; 
O  ye  sons  of  Israel. 
"  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day ; 

The  great  trumpet  shall  be  sounded 

And  those  shall  come,  who  were  perishing  in  the  \dXiCL 

of  Assyria; 
And  those  who  were  dispersed  in  the  land  of  Egypt: 
And  they  shall  bow  them.selvesdown  before  Jehovah 
In  the  holy  mountain,  in  Jerusalem.     (Isa.  xxvii.  12,  13.) 

"  In  these  two  stanzas,  Jigur  a  lively  inihejirst,  and  liter  ally  in  the  second, 
is  predicted  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  their  several  dispersions.  The 
/rs/linp  of  each  stanza  is  parallel  with  the  sixth;  the  second  with  the 
Jiftfi ;  and  the  thtrd  with  \.\\&  fourth.  Also,  on  comparing  the  stanzas  one 
with  another,  il  is  manifest,  that  they  are  constructed  with  theutmostpre- 
cision  of  mutual  correspondence;  clause  harmonizing  with  clause,  and 
line  respectively  with  line;  \h&  first  line  of  theirs/  stanza  with  the 
first  lino  of  the  second,  and  so  throughout."     (Sacred  Lit.  pp.  54,  55.) 

Until  very  recently,  the  poetical  parallelism  was  sup- 
posed to  be  confined  to  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament : 
but  Bishop  Jehb  has  shown  that  this  characteristic  of  He- 
brew Poetry,  also  exists,  to  a  considerable  degree,  in  the 
New  Testament. 

III.  Different  kinds  of  Hebrew  Poetry. 

Bishop  Lowth  reduces  the  various  productions  of  the 
Sacred  Poets  to  the  following  classes. 

1.  Prophetic  Poetnj,  or  that  peculiar  to  the  prophetic 
Books  :  for,  though  some  parts  of  them  are  evidently  in 
prose,  yet  the  remainder  are  clearly  poetical. 

2.  Elegiac  Poetry^  of  which  many  passages  occur  in 


OF  THE  HEBREWS.  \l\ 

the  prophetical  Books,  in  the  Book  of  Job,  in  the  Psalms, 
and  especially  in  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah. 

3.  Didactic  Poetry^  or  that  which  delivers  moral  pre- 
cepts in  elegant  verses.  To  this  class  belongs  the  Book 
of  Proverbs. 

4.  Of  Lyiic  Poetry,  or  that  which  is  designed  to  be 
accompanied  with  music,  numerous  instances  occur  in  the 
Old  Testament,  especially  in  the  Book  of  Psalms.  See 
also  Exod.  XV.  Deut.  xxxii.  and  Habakkuk  iii. 

5.  Of  the  Idyl,  or  short  pastoral  poem,  the  historical 
Psalms  afford  abundant  instances.  See  particularly  Psalms 
Ixxviii.  cv.  cvi.  cxxxvi.  and  cxxxix. 

6.  To  Dramatic  Poetry,  Bishop  Lowth  refers  the 
Book  of  Job,  and  the  Song  of  Solomon  :  but  this  opinion 
has  been  questioned  by  later  critics.  Many  of  the  Psalms 
however  are  a  kind  of  dramatic  ode,  consisting  of  dia- 
logues between  persons  sustaining  certain  characters. 

7.  Acrostic,  or  Alphabetical  Poems,  are  those  which 
consist  of  twenty-two  lines,  or  twenty-two  systems  of 
lines,  periods,  or  stanzas,  according  to  the  number  of  let- 
ters of  the  Hebrew  alphabet ;  that  is,  the  first  line  or  first 
stanza  begins  with  J^  (aleph,)  the  second  with  ^  (beth,) 
and  so  on.  Twelve  of  these  poems  are  found  in  the  Old 
Testament,  viz.  Psalms  xxv.  xxxiv.  xxxvii.  cxi.  cxii.  cxix. 
and  cxlv.  Prov.  xxxi.  10 — 31.  Lamentations  of  Jere- 
miah i.  ii.  iii.  iv.  Some  of  these  poems  are  perfectly, 
and  others  more  or  less,  alphabetical. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ON   HARMONIES   OF   SCRIPTURE. 


I.  Occasion  and  Design  of  Harmonies. 

The  several  Books  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  having  been 
written  at  different  times,  and  on  different  occasions,  ne- 
cessarily treat  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  historical, 
doctrinal,  moral,  and  prophetic.  The  sacred  authors 
also,  writing  with  different  designs,  have  not  always  re- 
lated the  same  events  in  the  same  order ;  some  are  intro- 
duced by  anticipation  ;  and  others  again  are  related  first, 
which  should  have  been  placed  last.  Hence,  seeming 
contradictions  have  arisen,  which  have  been  eagerly  sei- 


JJ2  ON  HARMONIES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 

zed  by  the  adversaries  of  Christianity,  in  order  to  perplex 
the  minds  and  sliake  the  faith  of  tliose  who  may  not  be 
able  to  detect  their  sopliistries.  These  contradictions, 
however,  are  not  real:  for  they  disappear  as  soon  as  tiiey 
are  broiigiit  to  the  test  of  candid  examination. 

The  manifest  importance  and  advantage  of  comparing 
the  sacred  writers  with  each  other,  iiave  induced  many 
learned  men  to  undertake  the  compilation  of  works,  which, 
being  designed  to  shew  the  perfect  agreement  of  all  j)arts 
of  the  sacred  writings,  are  commonly  termed  Harmonies. 
Two  classes  of  these  principally  claim  to  be  noticed  in 
this  place,  viz. :  Harmonies  of  the  Old,  and  Harmonies 
of  the  New  Testament. 

II.  Harmonies  of  tlie  Old  Testament. 

The  design  of  these  is,  to  dispose  the  historical,  poeti- 
cal, and  j)rophetical  Books  in  Ciironoiogical  OrdrT,  so 
that  they  may  mutually  explain  and  autiienticate  one  an- 
other. Our  learned  countryman.  Dr.  Ligiitfoot,  in  the 
year  1647,  puhlisiied  a  *'  Cin'onicle,'*  or  Harmony  of  tlie 
Old  Testament ;  on  tlie  basis  of  wiiich  the  Rev.  George 
Townsend  constructed  "  The  Old  Testament  arranged 
in  Historical  and  Chronological  Order  ;"  but  he  has  de- 
viated from  and  imj)roved  upon  the  plan  of  Lightfoot 
very  materially.     His  work  is  noticed  in  the  Appendix. 

III.  Harmonies  of  the  New  Testament  are  of  two 
sorts,  viz. : 

1.  Harmonies  of  the  entire  New  Testament,  in  which 
not  only  are  the  four  Gospels  chronologically  disposed, 
but  the  Epistles  are  also  placed  in  order  of  time,  and  in- 
terspersed in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Mr.  Townsend's 
'*  New  Testament  arranged  in  Chronological  and  Histori- 
cal Order"  is  the  most  complete  work  of  this  kind  in  the 
English  language. 

2.  Harmonies  of  the  Gospels,  in  which  the  narratives, 
or  memoirs,  of  tlu;  four  evangelist^,  are  digested  in  their 
proper  chronological  order.  These  are  very  numerous, 
according  to  the  plans  which  their  several  authors  pro- 
posed to  themselve.s.  Among  foreign  authors,  the  Latin 
Harmony  of  Chemnitz  (or  Chemnitius)  is  the  most  es- 
teemed :  and  among  our  Britisli  divines  those  of  Drs. 
Doddridge  and  Marknight  are  most  generally  read,  on 
account  of  tlieir  valuable  expositions  and  comiuentaries. 


113 


BOOK  II.— ON  THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


The  Literary  History  of  the  Sacred  volume  having 
thus  been  considered,  we  now  proceed  to  discuss  its  In- 
terpretation :  and  here  the  various  subsidiary  means 
for  ascertaining  the  sense  of  the  inspired  writers,  first  de- 
mand attention.  This  is  the  subject  of  the  first  chapter 
of  the  present  book  :  the  remaining  chapters  will  show 
in  what  manner  the  sense,  when  discovered,  is  to  be  com- 
municated, expounded,  and  applied. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ON   THE  LITERAL,    GRAMMATICAL,    OR  HISTORICAL   SENSE   OF   SCRIPTtTEB. 

Although,  in  every  language,  there  are  very  many 
words,  which  admit  of  several  meanings,  yet  in  common 
speech  there  is  only  one  true  sense  attached  to  any  word, 
which  sense  is  indicated  by  the  connexion  and  series  of 
the  discourse,  by  the  design  of  the  speaker  or  writer,  or 
by  some  other  circumstances,  unless  any  ambiguity  be 
purposely  intended.  The  same  usage  obtains  in  the  sa- 
cred writings. 

The  Literal  Sense  of  any  place  in  Scripture  is  that 
which  the  words  signify,  or  require  in  their  natural  and 
proper  acceptation.     Thus,  in 

Gen.  i.  1.  God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  the  words  mean  what 
they  literally  import,  and  must  be  interpreted  according  to  the  letter.  So, 
in  John  x.  30.,  the  words,  I  and  the  Father  are  one,  so  distinctly  and  nne- 
quivocally  assert  the  Deity  of  Christ,  and  his  equality  with  God  the  Fa- 
ther, that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  any  other  than  then-  proper  and 
literal  meaning  could  ever  be  given  to  tliem. 

The  literal  sense  has  been  termed  the  Historical 
Sense,  as  conveying  the  meaning  of  the  words  and  phra- 
ses used  by  a  writer  at  a  certain  time. 

Thus,  in  Gen.  x.  5.  Isa.  xi.  11.  and  many  other  passages  of  Scripture, 
the  word  isles  or  zsZanrfs  signifies  every  inhabited  region,  particularly  all 
the  Western  Coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  the  seats  of  Japhet'g 
posterity,  viz.  :  the  northern  parts  of  Asia,  Asia  Minor,  and  Europe,  to- 
gether with  some  other  regions. 

10* 


114  ON  THE  LITERAL,  GRAiMMATICAL, 


Bbction  L— Rules  for  investigating  the  Meaning  of  Words,  generallj". 

Since  words  compose  sentences,  from  which  the  mean- 
ing of  Scripture  is  to  be  collected,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
individual  meaning  of  such  words  be  ascertained,  bel'ore 
we  proceed  further  to  investigate  the  sense  of  Holy  Writ. 
As  the  same  method  and  the  same  principles  of  interpre- 
tation are  common  both  to  the  sacred  volume  and  to  the 
productions  of  uninspired  man,  the  signification  of  words 
in  the  Holy  Scriptures  must  be  sought  precisely  in  the 
same  way  in  which  the  meaning  of  words  in  other  works 
usually  is,  or  ought  to  be  sought.  And  since  no  text  of 
Scripture  has  more  than  one  meaning,  we  must  endea- 
vour to  find  out  that  one  true  sense  precisely  in  the  same 
manner  as  we  would  investigate  the  sense  of  any  ancient 
writ»'r  ;  and  in  that  sense,  when  so  ascertained,  we  ought 
to  acquiesce,  unless,  by  applying  the  just  rules  of  inter- 
pretation, it  can  be  shown  that  the  meaning  of  the  pas- 
sage has  been  mistaken,  and  that  another  is  the  only  just, 
true,  and  critical  sense  of  the  place.  The  following  gene- 
ral rules  will  be  found  useful  for  this  purpose, 

1.  Ascertain  the  notion  affixed  to  a  word  by  the  persons  in 
general,  by  whom  ihe  language  either  is  now  or  formerly  vvaa 
s|H.ken,  and  especially  in  the  particular  connexion  in  which 
such  notion  is  affixed. 

The  meaning  of  a  word  used  by  any  writer,  is  the  meaning  aflRxed  toil 
by  iliose  for  whom  he  immediuMy  wrote.  For  there  is  a  kind  of  natura? 
compact  between  those  who  write  and  those  who  speak  a  language;  by 
whi(;h  they  are  niuiually  bound  to  use  words  in  a  certain  sense :  he, 
therefore,  who  uses  such  words  in  a  dlflferent  signification,  in  a  manner 
violatesithiit  re  mpact,  and  is  in  danger  of  leading  men  into  error,  cunira- 
ry  to  the  detign  of  God,  "who  will  have  all  men  to  be  saved,  and  to  ci^me 
unto  the  knowledge  of  the  truth."  (I  Tim.  ii.  4.)  The  received  significa- 
tion of  a  word  ie  to  be  retained,  unless  w  eighty  and  necessary  reasons  re- 
quire that  it  sh<  uUl  he  aband(  ned  or  neglected. 

Wt;  t^hall  be  jut^tified  in  rejecting  the  leceived  meaning  of  a  word  in  tho 
following  cases,  viz.  : 

(1.)  If  such  meaning  clash  with  any  doctrine  clearly  revealed  in  tho 
Scrii)tures. 

(2.)  If  a  certain  passage  require  a  different  explanation  frrm  that  which 
It  appears  to  present :  as  Mai.  Iv.  5,6,  compared  with  Luke.  I  17,  and 
Matt.  .\i.  14.  f 

'Z.  Where  a  word  has  several  significations  in  common  use, 
that  nms!  be  selected  uhich  best  suits  the  puspaj'.e  in  (juestion, 
and  which  is  consisn  nt  with  an  jnitlor^s  known  character, 
seniinicnts,  and  Bilualion,  and  th(  kiw  wn  circuni.stances  undcc 
which  he  wrote. 


OR  HISTORICAL  &ENSE  OF  SCRIPTURE.  1 15 

For  instance,  the  word  Blood,  which  on  various  accounts  is  very  signi- 
ficant in  the  Sacred  Writings,  denotes — our  natural  descent  from  one 
common  family,  in  Acts  xvii.  26;— death,  in  Heb.  xii.  4;  the  svfferings 
and  death  of  Christ,  considered  as  an  atonement  for  the  souls  of  sinnecs, 
In  Rom.  V.  9.  and  Eph.  i,  7 ;  and  also  as  the  procuring  cause  of  our 
justiiication,  in  Rom.  v.  9,  and  of  our  sanctification  in  Heb.  ix.  14. 

3.  Although  the  force  of  particular  words  can  only  be  deriv- 
ed from  etymology,  yet  too  much  confidence  must  not  be 
placed  in  that  frequently  uncertain  science. 

4.  The  distinctions  between  words,  which  are  apparently 
synonymous,  should  be  carefully  examined  and  considered. 

In  the  119th  Psalm  there  are  len  different  words,  pointing  out  the  word 
of  God ;  viz. :  Law,  Way,  Word,  Statutes,  Judgments,  Commandments^^ 
Precepts,  Testimonies,  Righteousness,  and  Truth,  or  Faithfulness.  Now 
all  these  words,  though  usually  considered  as  synonymous,  are  not  life- 
rally  synonymous,  out  refer  to  some  latent  and  distinguishing  properties 
of  the  Divine  Word,  whose  manifold  excellencies  and  perfections  are  Ihua 
illustrated  with  much  elegant  variety  of  diction. 

5.  The  epithets  introduced  by  the  sacred  writers  are  also  to 
be  carefully  weighed  and  considered,  as  all  of  them  have  either 
a  declarative  or  explanatory  force,  or  serve  to  distinguish  one 
thing  fi'om  another,  or  unite  these  two  characters  together. 

6.  General  terms  are  used  sometimes  in  their  whole  extent, 
and  sometimes  in  a  restricted  sense,  and  whether  they  are  to 
be  understdbd  in  the  one  way,  or  in  the  other,  must  depend 
upon  the  scope,  subject-matter,  context,  and  parallel  passages. 

The  word,  live,  in  1  Thess.  iii.  8,  it  is  evident,,  both  from  the  subject- 
matter  and  the  context,  must  be  taken  in  a  restricted  sense,  and  not  as 
implying  the  apostle's  natural  life  or  existence. 


Section  II.— Aids  for  Investigating  the  Meaning  of  Words  in  combination. 


§  1.— Of  the  Scope,  and  Context. 

I.  The  Scope  defined. 

A  consideration  of  the  Scope,  or  design  which  the  in- 
spired author  of  any  of  the  books  of  Scripture  had  in 
view,  essentially  facilitates  the  study  of  the  Bible  :  be- 
cause, as  every  writer  had  some  design  in  view,  it  is  na- 
tural to  conclude  that  he  would  express  himself  in  terms 
adapted  to  his  purpose.  To  be  acquainted  with  the  scope, 
therefore,  is  to  understand  the  chief  part  of  the  book* 
The  scope  of  an  author  is  either  general,  or  special ;  by 
the  former,  we  understand  the  design  which  he  proposed 
to  himself  in  writing  his  book;  by  the  latter,  we  mean  that 
design  which  he  had  in  view,  when  writing  particular  sec- 
tions, or  even  smaller  portions,  of  his  book  or  treatise 


IIQ  ON  THE  LITERAL,  GRAMMATICAL, 

II.  Hints  for  ascertaining  the  Scope. 

The  means,  by  which  to  ascertain  the  scope  of  a par^ 
iicular  section,  or  passage,  being  nearly  the  same  with 
those  whicli  must  be  applied  to  tiie  investigation  of  the 
general  scope  of  a  book,  we  sliall  briefly  consider  tliem 
together  in  the  following  observations. 

1.  When  the  scope  of  a  whole  book,  or  of  any  particular  por- 
tion of  it,  is  expressly  mentioned  by  the  sacred  writer,  it  siiould 
be  carefully  observed. 

The  scope  and  end  of  the  whole  Bible  collectively,  is  contained  in  its 
manifold  utility,  which  St.  Paul  expressly  states  in  2  Tim.  iii.  16,  17,  and 
also  in  Rom.  xv.  4.  In  like  manner,  the  author  of  Ecclesiastes  announces 
at  the  beginning  of  his  book,  the  subject  he  intends  to  discuss,  viz:  to  show 
that  all  liuman  aflfairs  are  vain,  uncertain,  frail  and  imperfect;  and  such 
being  the  case,  he  proceeds  to  inquire,  Wiat  profit  hath  a  man  of  ail  his 
labour  which  he  taketk  uiider  the  aunl  (Eccl.  i.  2,  3.)  And  towards  the 
close  of  the  same  book,  (ch.  xii.  8.)  he  repeats  the  same  subject,  the  truth 
of  whicli  he  liad  proved  by  experience.  So,  in  the  commencement  of  the 
book  of  Proverbs,  Solomon  distinctly  announces  their  scope  (ch.  i.  1 — 1.  6.) 
St.  John  (XX.  31,)  announces  his  object  in  writing  his  Gospel  to  be,  that 
men  might  heliuve  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ  the  Son  of  God,  arid  that  be- 
lieving, Ihey  might  have  life  tlirougli  his  name;  therefore  all  those  dis- 
courses of  our  Lord  which  are  recorded  almost  exclusively  by  this  evan- 
gelist, are  to  be  perused  with  reference  to  this  particular  design. 

2.  The  scope  of  the  gacred  writer  may  be  ascertained  from 
the  known  occasion,  upon  which  his  book  was  written,  and 
also  from  history. 

We  know  from  history  that  many  persons  disseminated  errors  and  de- 
fended Judaism,  during  the  time  of  the  apostles;  who  therefore  found  it 
necessary  to  oppose  and  refute  such  errors.  This  was  the  occasion  of 
Saint  Peter's  second  Epistle:  and  the  circumstance  will  enable  us  to  as- 
certain the  scope  of  many  of  the  other  apostolic  letters. 

3.  The  express  conclusion,  added  by  the  writer  at  the  end 
of  an  argument,  demonstrates  his  general  scope. 

Thus  in  Rom.  iii.  28,  after  a  long  discussion,  St.  Paul  adds  this  conclu- 
sion : — Thf  efure  we  conclude,  that  man  is  justified  hy  faith  without  the 
deeds  of  the  law:  Hence  we  perceive  with  wliat  design  the  whole  pea- 
sage  was  written,  and  to  wliich  all  the  rest  is  to  be  referred.  The  conclu- 
sions interspersed  through  the  epistles  may  easily  be  ascertained  by  means 
of  the  particles,  "  wherefore,"  "  seeing  that,"  "  lheref)re,"  "then,"  Ace.  as 
well  as  by  the  circumstances  directly  mentioned  or  referred  to. 

II.  Context  defined. 

Another  most  important  assistance,  for  investigating 
the  meaning  of  words  and  phrases,  is  the  consideration  of 
the  Context,,  or  the  comparison  of  the  preceding  and  sub- 
sequent parts  of  a  discourse  :  as  this  alone,  in  inany  in- 
stances, can  enable  us  to  determine  that  signification  which 
is  best  adapted  to  any  word  or  passage. 

(1.)  The  Hebrew  word  "^K^D  (bc-sh^b)  literally  signifies  the  akin,  by  a 
naetononiy,  the  flrsh  beneath  the  skin  ;  and  by  a  synecdoche  It  donotea 
every  animal,  especially  man,  considered  U3  infirm  or  weak;  as  in  Jei. 


OR  HISTORICAL  SENSE  OF  SCRIPTURE.  HiJ* 

Xvll.  5 — Cursed  be  the  man  that  trusteth  in  man,  and  maketh  flesh  hia 
arm;  but  that  thewovdjeshlsiohe  understood  of  wan  only  in  Gen.  vi  12, 
will  be  evident  on  the  slightest  inspection  of  the  context.  All  fiesh  had 
corrupted  his  way — that  is  all  men  had  wholly  departed  from  ilie  rule  of 
righteousness,  or  had  made  their  way  of  life  abominable  throughout  the 
world. 

(2.)  There  is  a  diflference  of  opinion  whether  the  address  of  Job's  wife 
(Job  ii.  9,)  is  to  be  understood  in  a  good  sense,  as,  Bless  (or  ascribe  glory  to) 
God  and  die  ;  or  in  a  different  signification,  Curse  God  and  die,  as  it  is  ren- 
dered in  our  authorized  version.  Circumstances  show  that  the  last  is  the 
proper  meaning ;  because  as  yet  Job  had  not  sinned  with  his  lips,  and 
consequently  his  wife  had  no  ground  for  charging  him  with  indulging  a 
vaun  opinion  of  his  integrity. 

1.  The  context  of  a  discourse  in  the  Scriptures,  may 
comprise  either  one  verse,  a  few  verses,  entire  periods, 
or  sections,  entire  chapters,  or  whole  books.     Thus, 

(1.)  If  1  Cor.  X.  16,  be  the  passage  under  examination,  the  preceding 
and  subsequent  parts  of  the  epistle,  which  belong  to  it,  are  the  eighth, 
ninth,  and  tenth  chapters. 

(2.)  If  Isa.  li.  be  the  chapter  in  question,  the  reader  must  not  stop  at  the 
end  of  it,  but  continue  his  perusal  to  the  12tn  ver.?e  of  ch.  lii.  ;  for  these 
together  form  one  subject  or  argument  of  prediction,  in  which  the  pro- 
phet is  announcing  to  his  countrymen  the  certainty  of  their  deliverance 
and  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity.  This  entire  portion  ought 
therefore  to  be  read  at  once,  in  order  to  apprehend  fully  the  prophet's 
meaning. 

(3  )  In  like  manner,  the  verses  from  v.  13  of  ch.  lii.  to  the  end  of  ch.  liii. 
form  a  new  and  entire  section  relative  to  the  sufferings  of  the  Messiah. 
Here  then  is  a  wrong  division  of  chapters,  to  which  no  regard  should  be 
paid  in  examining  the  context  of  a  book.  Ch.  li.  ought  to  include  v.  12 
of  ch.  lii.  and  ch.  lii.  ought  to  commence  at  v.  13,  and  be  continued  to  the 
end  of  ch.  liii. 

(4.)  In  like  manner,  the  first  verse  of  the  fourth  chapter  of  St.  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Colossians  ought  to  be  joined  to  the  third  chapter:  the 
slightest  attention  to  this  point  will  enable  a  diligent  student  to  add  nu- 
merous other  examples. 

III.  Hints  for  examining  the  Context. 

1.  Investigate  each  word  of  every  passage. 

2.  Next,  examine  the  entire  passage  with  minute  attention. 
Sometimes  a  single  passage  will  require  a  whole  chapter,  or 
several  of  the  preceding  and  following  chapters,  or  even  the 
entire  book,  to-be  perused;  and  that  not  once,  or  twice,  but 
several  limes. 

For  instance,  that  otherwise  difficult  passage,  Rom.  ix.  18 — TJierefore 
hath  he  mercy  on  whom  he  will  have  mercy,  and  whom  he  will  he  hardeneth^ 
will  become  perfectly  clear  by  a  close  examination  of  the  context,  begin- 
ning at  verse  18,  of  chapter  viii.  and  reading  to  the  end  of  the  eleventh 
chapter  ;  this  portion  of  the  epistle  being  most  intimately  connected. 

3.  A  verse,  or  passage  must  not  be  connected  with  a  remote 
context,  unless  the  latter  agree  better  with  it  than  a  nearer 
context. 

Thus  Rom.  ii.  16,  although  It  makes  a  good  sense  if  connected  with  the 
preceding  verse,  makes  a  much  better  when  joined  with  verse  12,  (the 
Intermediate  verses  being  read  parenthetically  as  in  the  authorized  vet* 
sion  ;)  and  this  shows  it  to  be  the  true  and  proper  context^ 


llg  ON  THE  LITERAL,  GRAMMATICAL, 

4.  Examine  whether  tlie  writer  continues  his  discourse,  lest 
we  sujjpose  him  to  make  a  transition  to  another  argument, 
wlien  he  in  fact  is  prosecuting  the  same  topic. 

Rom.  V.  12.  vrlll  furnish  an  Illustration  of  this  remark.  From  that 
verse  lo  the  end  of  the  chapter  St.  Paul  producea  a  strong  argument  to 
prove,  that  as  all  men  stood  m  need  of  the  grace  of  God  in  Christ  to  re- 
deem them  from  their  sins,  so  this  grace  has  been  afforded  equally  to  all, 
whether  Jews  or  Gentiles.  To  per*,  eive  the  full  force,  therefore,  of  the 
apostle's  conclusion,  we  must  read  the  continuation  of  his  argument  from 
verse  12.  to  the  close  of  the  chapter. 

5.  The  Parentheses  which  occur  in  the  sacred  writings 
should  be  particularly  regarded  :  but  no  parenthesis  should  be 
interposed  without  sufficient  reason. 

Parentheses,  being  contrary  to  the  genius  and  structure  of  the  Hebrew 
language,  are,  comparatively,  of  rare  occurrence  in  the  Old  Testament. 
But  in  the  New  Testament,  they  are  frequent,  especially  in  the  writings 
of  St.  Paul;  who,  after  making  numerous  digressions,  (all  of  them  appro- 
priate to,  and  illustrative  of,  his  main  subject,)  returns  to  the  topic  which 
he  had  begun  to  discuss. 

Thus,  in  Rom.  ii.,  verses  13,  14,  and  15  are  obviously  parenthetical;  be- 
cause Uie  context  evidently  requires  verses  12  and  16  to  be  lead  toge- 
ther. In  Rom.  v.,  verses  12,  18,  19  evidently  form  one  continued  sentence ; 
and  all  the  intermediate  verses  are  undoubtedly  to  be  read  as  a  paren- 
thesis, though  they  are  not  marked  as  such  in  the  authorised  translation. 
1  Cor.  viii.  1,  beginning  with  the  words.  Knowledge  puffetk  up,  «kc.  to  the 
end  of  the  first  clause  m  verse  4,  is  in  like  manner  parenthetical.  The 
connexion,  therefore,  of  the  first  wiUi  the  fourth  verse  is  this:— A^otr,  as 
touching  things  offered  unto  idols,  tee  know  that  we  have  all  knoiclf-dqe. — 
We  know  that  an  idol  is  nothing,  &.C.  1  Cor.  X.  2'J,  latter  clause,  and  verse 
30,  are  parenthetical ;  as  also  are  2  Cor.  ix.  9,  10,  which  are  so  printed  In 
our  version.  A  still  more  signal  instance  of  parenthesis  occurs  in  Eph.  iii. 
where  the  first  and  fourteenth  verses  are  connected,  the  twelve  interme- 
diate verses,  (2  to  13,)  being  parenthetical :  as  also  is  I  Tim.  i.  verses  3  lo 
17,  inclusive. 

7.  Where  no  connexion  exists  with  the  preceding  and  sub- 
sequent parts  of  a  book,  none  should  be  sought. 

This  observation  aipplies  solely  to  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  and  chiefly 
to  the  tenth  and  following  chapters;  which  form  the  second  part  of  that 
book,  and  are  composed  of  sentences,  or  proverbs,  totally  distinct  and  un- 
connected, though  each  individual  precept  is  pregnant  with  the  most 
weighty  Instruction. 


§  2.— Analogy  of  Scripture,  or  Parallel  Passages. 

1.  Nature  and  importance  of  Parallel  Pa8S.\ges. 

Parallel  Passages  are  those  which  bear  some  decree  of 
resemblance  in  sentiment,  lanjiuage,  or  idiom  :  and  tlie 
comj)arison  of  them  is  a  most  important  help  for  interpre- 
tinj^  such  j)arts  of  Scripture  as  may  appear  to  us  obscure, 
or  uncertain  :  for,  on  almost  every  subject,  there  will  be 
found  a  multitude  of  phrases,  that,  wiu-n  diliL'ciitly  colla- 
ted, will  alford  mutual  illustration  and  support  to  each 
other  ;  the   truth,  which  is  more  obscurely  intimated  in 


OR  fflSTORICAL  SENSE  OF  SCRIPTURE.  Hg 

one    place,  being   expressed   with   greater   precision    in 
others. 

Parallelisms  are  either  near,  or  remote :  in  the  former 
case,  the  parallel  passages  are  sought  from  the  same  wri- 
ter ;  in  the  latter,  from  different  writers.  They  are  fur- 
ther termed  adequate,  when  they  atfect  the  whole  subject 
proposed  in  the  text :  and  inadequate,  when  they  affect  it 
only  in  part :  but  the  most  usual  division  of  the  analogy 
of  Scripture,  or  parallelisms,  is  into  verbal,  or  parallel- 
isms of  words  ;  and  real,  or  parallelisms  of  things. 

1.  A  Verbal  Parallelism,  or  Analogy,  is  that  in  which, 
on  comparing  two  or  more  places  together,  the  same  words 
and  phrases,  the  same  mode  of  argument,  the  same  me- 
thod of  construction,  and  the  same  rhetorical  figures,  are 
respectively  to  be  found. 

2.  A  Real  Parallelism,  or  Analogy,  is  where  the  same 
event,  or  thing  is  related,  the  same  doctrine  is  taught,  or 
the  same  subject  is  discussed.  But  besides  these  two  spe- 
cies of  parallelisms,  there  is, 

3.  A  third,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  both,  and  which 
is  of  equal  importance  for  understanding  the  Scriptures  : 
This  has  been  termed  a  Parallelism  of  Members  :  it  con- 
sists chiefly  in  a  certain  equality  resemblance,  or  parallel- 
ism, between  the  members  of  each  period  ;  so  that  in  two 
lines,  or  members  of  the  same  period,  things  shall  answer 
to  things,  and  words  to  words,  as  if  fitted  to  each  other  by 
a  kind  of  rule,  or  measure. 

The  nature  of  this  kind  of  parallelism,  which  is  the 
grand  characteristic  of  the  poetical  style  of  the  Hebrews, 
has  been  already  considered  ;  and  its  critical  uses  have 
been  illustrated.     Sec  pp.  108 — 110,  supra. 

A  single  example  will  suffice  to  show  the  importance 
of  this  help  to  the  interpretation  of  the  poetical  parts  of 
Scripture. 

Psal.  Ixxxiv.  5 — 7.  is  confessedly  a  difficult  passage  of 

Scripture,  but  by  considering  it  as  an  introverted  paraU 

lelism  (the  nature  of  which  is  defined  in  p.  110.)     Bishop 

Jebb   has  thrown  much  light  upon  those  verses. 

"  Blessed  is  the  man  whose  strength  is  in  Thee: 
The  passengers  in  whose  heart  are  the  ways, 
In  the  valley  of  Baca  make  it  a  spring; 
The  rain  also  filleth  the  pools; 
They  go  from  strength  tn  t^trength ; 
He  shall  appear  before  God  in  Zion. 


120  ^N  "^^^  LITERAL,  GRAMMATICAL, 

«« The  first  and  sixth  lines  are  here  considered,  at  once,  as  constructively 
paraHel,  and  as  affording  a  continuous  sense  :  the  intermediate  four  lineS 
may  be  accounted  parenthetical  ;  thesecond,  constructively  parallel  with 
the  fifth;  and  the  third  with  llie  fourth.  Tlie  first  line  seems  to  contain 
the  character  of  a  confirmed  proficient  In  religion,— /us  strength  is  in 
God;  the  sixth  line,  to  describe  his  final  beatification,— Ac  «Aa// u/)pcor 
before  God  in  Zion.  The  intermediate  quatrain  may  be  regarded  as 
descriptive  of  the  intermediate  course  pursued  by  those  who  desire  to  be 
good  and  happy  ;  they  are  passengers  ;  but  they  know  4heir  destination, 
and  they  long  for  it;  at  a  distance  from  the  temple,  they  are  anxious  to 
arrive  there;  the  very  highways  to  Jerusalem  are  in  their  heart.  And 
what  is  the  consequence  7  Affection  smooths  all  difficulties  :  the  parched 
and  sandy  desert  becomes  a  rich  well-watered  valley ;  and  they  cheer- 
fully advance  from  strength  to  strength ;  from  one  degree  of  virtuous  pro- 
ficiency to  another."    (Sacred  Literature,  pp.  55,  56.) 

II.  Rules  for  comparing  Parallel  Passages, 

1 .  Ascertain  the  primary  meaning  of  the  passage  under  con- 

eideration. 

In  1  Cor.  iv.  5,  we  read,  Judge  nothing  before  the  time,  until  the  Lord 
come,  who  trill  both  bring  to  light  the  hidden  things  of  darkness,  and  will 
make  manifest  the  counsels  of  the  hearts.  Now  here  is  a  parallelism  of 
members,  but  the  flindamenlal  meaning  is,  that  God  judges  the  counsels 
of  men  ;  he  therefore  judges  without  respect  of  persons,  and  with  unerring 
impartiality.  The  Apostle's  design  was,  to  show  that  it  is  impossible  for 
men  to  perceive  and  judge  the  counsels  of  one  another. 

2.  Althouo:h  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  primarily  coming  from 
God,  are  perfectly  consistent,  and  harmonize  throughout ;  yet, 
as  they  were  secondarily  written  by  different  authors,  on 
various  topics,  and  in  different  styles,  those  books  are  in  the 
fir.'st  instance  to  be  compared,  which  were  composed  by  the 
same  author,  in  the  same  language,  and  on  a  parallel  subject. 

By  comparing  Psal.  xxxviii.  10,  with  1  Sam.  xiv.  26,  27,  (in  which  Jo- 
nathan,  having  taken  some  honey  for  his  refreshment,  is  said  to  have  had 
his  eyes  enlightened,)  we  shall  readily  apprehend  the  force  of  the  psalm- 
ist's complaint,  that  the  light  qf  his  eyes  was  gone  from  him ;  for  the  eyes 
of  a  person  in  good  health  are  so  strong  as  to  sparkle  with  the  rays  of 
light  that  fall  upon  them;  whereas,  vhen  the  constitution  is  worn  by 
long  sickness,  or  broken  by  grief,  the  eyes  lose  their  vigour  and  brilliancy, 
and,  in  cases  of  incipient  blindness,  the  light  gradually  fails  the  eyes. 

3.  Collect  all  those  similar  passages,  in  which  the  same 
forms  of  speech  occur,  and  the  same  topics  are  proposed  :  and 
consider  well,  whether  thev  are  really  parallel,  that  is,  not 
only  whether  the  same  word,  but  also  the  same  ihinii:,  answers 
together,  in  order  to  form  a  safe  judgment  concerning  it. 

It  often  happens  that  one  word  has  several  distinct  meanings,  one  of 
"Which  obtains  in  one  place,  and  one  in  another  place.  When,  therefore, 
■words  of  such  various  meanings  present  themselves,  all  Uiose  passages 
where  they  occur  are  not  to  be  Immediately  considered  as  parallel,  unless 
they  have  a  similar  power.  Thus,  If  anyone  were  to  compare  Jonah  Iv. 
10,  (where  mention  is  made  of  the  gourd  which  came  up  In  a  night,  and 
perished  in  a  night,  and  which.  In  the  original  Hebrew,  Is  termed  the  son 
of  a  nj'^A/,)  with  1  Thess.  v.  5,  where  Christians  are  called,  not  children  of 
the  night,  but  children  of  the  day,  It  would  be  a  spurious  parallel. 

4.  Where  two  parallel  passages  present  themselves,  the 
clearer  and  more  co|)ious  |»lace  must  be  selected  to  illustrate 
one  that  is  more  briefly  and  obscurely  expressed. 


OR  HISTORICAL  SENSE  OF  SCRIPTURE.  121 

5.  No  assistance  is  to  be  derived  from  similar  passages,  the 
sense  of  which  is  uncertain. 

The  method  here  indicated  is  the  only  effectual  way 
by  which  to  ascertain  parallel  words  and  phrases,  as  well 
as  parallelisms  of  things  :  it  will  indeed  require  a  conside- 
rable portion  of  time  and  study,  which  every  one  may  not 
perhaps  be  able  to  give  ;  but  individuals  thus  circumstan- 
ced may  advantageously  facilitate  their  researches  by 
having  recourse  to  editions  of  the  Bible  with  parallel  re- 
ferences, and  to  concordances,  the  most  useful  of  which 
are  specified  in  the  Appendix. 


§  3.—  Of  the  Analogy  of  Faith . 

I.  Analogy  of  Faith  defined. 

The  Analogy  of  Faith  may  be  defined  to  be  the  con- 
stant and  perpetual  harmony  of  Scripture  in  the  funda- 
mental points  of  faith  and  practice,  deduced  from  those 
passages,  in  which  they  are  discussed  by  the  inspired  pen- 
men, either  directly,  or  expressly,  and  in  clear,  plain,  and 
intelligible  language.  Or,  more  briefly,  the  analogy  of 
faith  may  be  defined  to  be  that  proportion,  which  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Gospel  bear  to  each  other,  or  the  close  con- 
nexion between  the  truths  of  revealed  religion.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  important  aids  for  ascertaining  the  sense  of 
Scripture.  The  Analogy  of  Faith  is  an  expression  bor- 
rowed from  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  (xii.  6,) 
where  he  exhorts  those  who  prophesy  in  the  church  (that 
is,  those  who  exercise  the  office  of  authoritatively  ex- 
pounding the  Scriptures,)  to  prophesy  according  to  the 
proportion,  or,  as  the  word  is  in  the  original,  the  Analogy 
of  Faith. 

II.  Hints  for  investigating  the  Analogy  of  Faith. 

1.  Whenever  any  doctrine  is  manifest,  either  from  the  whole 
tenor  of  divine  revelation,  or  from  its  scope,  it  must  not  be 
weakened  or  set  aside  by  a  few  obscure  passages. 

No  truth  is  more  certain  in  religion,  or  is  more  frequently  asserted  in 
the  Bible  than  this,  viz. :  that  God  is  good,  not  only  to  some  individuals,  but 
also  towards  all  men.  (See  Psal.  cxlv.  9.  Ezek.  xviil.  23.  32.  John  iii.  16. 
Tit,  ii.  11,  &c.  &c.)  If,  therefore,  any  passages  occur  which  at  first  sight 
appear  to  contradict  the  goodness  of  God,  as,  for  instance,  that  He  has 
created  some  persons  that  he  might  damn  them,  (as  some  have  insinuated  ;> 
in  such  case  the  very  clear  and  certain  doctrine  relative  to  the  goodness 
of  God  is  not  to  be  impugned,  much  less  set  aside,  by  these  obscure  places, 
which,  on  the  contrary,  ought  to  be  illustrated  by  such  passages  as  are 
more  clear.    Thus  Prov.  xvi.  4,  has,  by  several  eminent  writers,  been  sup- 

11 


122  ON  THE  LITERAL,  GRAMMATICAL, 

poeed  to  refer  to  the  predestination  of  the  elect,  and  the  reprobation  of  the 
wicked,  but  without  any  foundation.  The  passage,  however,  may  be  more 
correctly  rendered,  The  Lord  hath  made  all  ihi7igs  to  answer  to  themselves, 
or  aptly  to  refer  to  one  another,  yea,  even  the  wicked, /or  the  evil  day,  tliat 
is,  to  be  the  executioner  of  evil  to  others;  on  which  account  they  are  in 
Scripture  termed  the  rod  of  Jehovah,  (Isa.  x.  5,)  and  his  sword  (Psal,  xvii. 
13.)  But  there  is  no  necessity  for  rejecting  the  received  version,  the  plain 
and  obvious  sense  of  which  is  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  world  which 
does  not  contribute  to  the  glory  of  God,  and  promote  the  accomplishment 
of  his  adorable  designs. 

2.  No  doctrine  can  belong  to  the  analogy  of  faith,  which  is 
founded  on  a  single  text. 

Every  essential  principle  of  religion  is  delivered  in  more  them  one  place. 
Besides,  single  sentences  are  not  to  be  detached  from  the  places  where 
they  stand,  but  must  be  taken  in  connexion  with  the  whole  discourse. 

From  disregard  of  this  rule,  the  temporary  direction  of  the  apostle 
James  (v.  14,  15,)  has  been  perverted  by  the  church  of  Rome,  and  ren- 
dered a  permanent  institution,  (by  her  miscalled  a  sacrament,  for  it  was 
never  instituted  by  Jesus  Christ,)  from  a  mean  of  recovery,  to  a  charm, 
when  recovery  is  desperate,  for  the  salvation  of  the  soul. 

3.  The  WHOLE  system  of  revelation  must  be  explained,  so  as 
to  be  consistent  with  itself— Whien  two  passages  appear  to  be 
contradictory,  if  the  sense  of  the  one  can  be  clearly  ascer- 
tained, in  such  case  that  must  regulate  our  interpretation  of 
the  other. 

4.  An  obscure,  doubtful,  ambiguous,  or  figurative  text  must 
never  be  interpreted  in  such  a  sense  as  to  make  it  contradict  a 
plain  one. 

In  explaining  the  Scriptures,  consistency  of  sense  and  principles  ought 
to  be  supported  in  all  their  several  parts ;  and  if  any  one  part  be  so  in- 
terpreted as  to  clash  with  another,  such  interpretation  cannot  be  jusli- 
fipd.  Nor  can  it  be  otherwise  corrected  than  by  considering  every  doubt- 
ful or  difficult  text,  first  by  itself,  then  with  its  context,  and  then  by  com- 
paring it  wiUi  other  paissuges  of  Scripture ;  and  llius  bringing  what  may 
seem  obscure  into  a  consistency  Willi  what  is  plain  and  evident. 

The  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  inculcated  by  the  church  of  Rome, 
is  founded  on  a  strictly  literal  interpretation  of  figurative  expressions, 
"This  is  my  body,"  A:c.  (Matt,  xxvi.  26,  &c.)  and  (which  has  no  relation 
to  the  supper,)  -'Eat  my  flesh,  drink  my  blood,"  (John  vi.  51 — 58.)  But 
Independently  of  this,  we  may  further  conclude  that  the  sense  put  upon 
the  words,  "  This  is  my  body,"  by  the  church  of  Rome,  cannot  be  the 
true  one,  being  contraiy  to  the  express  declaration  of  the  New  Testament 
history,  from  which  it  is  evident  that  our  Lord  is  ascended  into  heaven, 
where  he  is  to  continue  "  till  the  time  of  the  restitution  of  all  things;" 
(Acts  iii.  21,)  that  is,  till  his  second  coming  to  judgment.  How  tlien  can 
his  body  be  in  ten  thousand  several  places  on  earth  at  one  and  the 
BametiineT  We  may  further  add  that,  if  the  doctrine  of  tran.«ulistaiitia- 
lion  be  true,  it  will  follow  that  our  Saviour,  when  he  instituted  tin-  Snera- 
ment  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  did  actually  eat  his  own  flesh,  and  drink  liis 
own  blood  :  a  conclusion  this,  so  oln'iousjy  contrailictory  botJi  to  reason 
and  to  Scripturei,  that  it  is  astonishing  how  airy  sensible  aiid  religious 
man  can  credit  such  a  lest. 

5.  Such  passages  as  are  expressed  with  brevity  are  to  be 
exiK)uiided  by  those,  whcn-e  the  same  doctrines  or  duties  are 
expressed  more  largely  and  fully. 

I.  The  doctrine  of  justification,  for  instance,  la  briefly  stated  in  Phil,  lil. ; 
but  that  inomcntuous  doctrine  is  prof(^8edly  discussed  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Galatlans,  and  especially  m  that  to  Uic  Romans:  and  accoiding  to  the 


OR  HISTORICAL  SENSE  OF  SCRIPTURE.  123 

tenor  of  these,  particularly  Rom.  iii.,  all  the  other  passages  of  Scripture 
that  treat  of  justification,  should  be  explained. 

ii.  Even  slight  variations  will  frequently  serve  for  the  purpose  of  reci- 
procal illustration.  Thus,  the  beatitudes,  related  in  Luke  vi.,  though  deli- 
vered at  another  time,  and  in  a  different  place,  are  the  same  with  those 
delivered  by  Jesus  Christ,  in  his  sermon  on  the  mount,  and  recorded  in 
Matt.  V.  Being,  however,  epitomised  by  ttie/ormer  evangelist,  they  may 
be  explained  by  the  latter. 

6.  "  Where  several  doctrines  of  equal  importance  are  pro- 
posed, and  revealed  with  great  clearness,  we  must  be  careful  to 
give  to  each  its  full  and  equal  vi^eight." 

"  Thus,  that  we  are  saved  by  the  free  grace  of  God,  and  through  faith 
in  Christ,  is  a  doctrine  too  plainly  affirmed  by  the  sacred  writers,  to  be  set 
aside  by  any  contravening  position.  (Eph.  ii.  8.)  But  so,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  the  doctrines  of  repentance  unto  life,  and  of  obedience  unto 
salvation.  (Acts  iii,  19.  Matt,  xix.  17.)  To  set  either  of  these  truths  at 
variance  with  the  other's,  would  be  to  frustrate  the  declared  purpose  of  the 
Gospel,  and  to  make  it  of  none  effect.  Points  thus  clearly  established,  and 
from  their  very  nature  indispensable,  must  be  made  to  correspond  with 
each  other :  and  the  exposition,  which  best  preserves  them  unimpaired 
and  undiminished,  will,  in  any  case,  be  a  safe  interpretation,  and  most 
probably  the  true  one.  The  analogy  of  faith  will  thus  be  kept  entire,  and 
will  approve  itself,  in  every  respect,  as  becoming  its  Divine  Author,  and 
worthy  of  all  acceptation,"    (Bp.  Vanmildert's  Hampton  Lectures,  p.  294.) 

It  must,  however,  be  ever  borne  in  mind,  that,  valua- 
ble as  this  aid  is,  it  is  to  be  used  only  in  concurrence  with 
those  which  have  been  discussed  and  illustrated  in  the  pre- 
ceding sections.  But,  by  a  due  attention  to  these  princi- 
ples, accompanied  by  humility  and  sincerity,  with  a  de- 
sire to  know  and  obey  the  revealed  will  of  God,  and,  above 
all,  with  fervent  supplication  to  the  throne  of  Grace  for 
a  blessing  on  his  labours,  the  diligent  inquirer  after  Scrip- 
ture truth,  may  confidently  hope  for  success,  and  will  be 
enabled  to  perceive  the  design  of  every  portion  of  holy 
writ,  its  harmony  with  the  rest,  and  the  divine  perfection 
of  the  whole. 


§  4.  Historical  Circumstances. 

Historical  Circumstances  are  an  important  help  to 
the  correct  understanding  of  the  sacred  writers.  Under 
this  term  are  comprised  : — 1.  The  Order;  2.  The  Title; 
3.  The  Author ;  4.  The  Date  of  each  of  the  several  books 
of  Scripture ;  5.  The  Place  where  it  was  written  ;  6.  The 
Occasion  upon  which  the  several  books  were  written  ;  7. 
Ancient  Sacred  and  Profane  History ;  8.  The  Chrono- 
^'^SV't  ^^  period  of  time  embraced  in  the  Scriptures  gene- 
rally, and  of  each  book  in  particular ;  9.  Biblical  Anti- 
quities ;  (All  these  topics  are  adverted  to,  in  the  third  and 


134  ON  THE  LITERAL,  GRAMMATICAL, 

fourth  parts  of  this  volume  :)  and,  10.  The  knowledge  of 
the  Affections,  or  feelings  of  the  Sacred  writers,  and  of 
the  sentiments  of  the  persons  whom  they  addressed. 

I.  A  knowledge  of  the  Order  of  the  different  Books, 
especially  such  as  are  historical,  will  more  readily  assist 
the  student  to  discover  the  order  of  the  different  histories 
and  other  matters  discussed  in  them,  as  well  as  to  trace 
the  divine  economy  towards  mankind,  under  the  Mosaic 
and  Christian  dispensations. 

II.  The  Titles  are  further  worthy  of  notice,  because 
some  of  them  announce  the  chief  subject  of  the  book — as 
Genesis,  the  generations  of  heaven  and  earth — Exodus, 
the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  &c. ;  while 
other  titles  denote  the  churches,  or  particular  persons, 
for  whose  more  immediate  use  some  parts  of  scripture 
were  composed,  and  thus  elucidate  particular  passages. 

III.  Where  the  name  of  the  Author  of  a  book  is  not 
distinctly  stated,  it  may  be  collected  from  internal  circum- 
stances ;  as,  his  peculiar  character,  mode  of  thinkine:,  and 
style  of  writing,  as  well  as  the  incidental  testimonies  con- 
cerning himself,  which  his  writings  may  contain.     Thus, 

The  expressions  in  2  Pet.  i,  18,  and  iii.  1.15,  prove  Saint  Peter  to  have 
been  the  author  of  that  epistle;  and  a  comparison  of  the  Epistles  and 
Gospel  of  St.  John  proves  also  thattliey  are  the  production  of  one  and  the 
same  author. 

IV.  A  knowledge  of  the  Time  when  a  book  was  writ- 
ten, also  of  the  state  of  the  Church  at  that  time,  will  in- 
dicate the  reason  and  propriety  of  things  said  in  such 
book,  as  well  as  the  author's  scope,  or  intention  in  wri- 
ting it.     Thus, 

(1.)  The  injunction  In  1  Tliess.  v.  27,  which  may  appear  unnecessary, 
•will  be  found  to  be  a  very  proper  one,  when  it  is  considered  ihni  tliat  was 
the  first  epistle  written  by  St.  Paul ;  and  that  the  apostle,  knowing  ihe 
pleriitude  of  his  divine  commission,  demands  Uie  same  respect  to  be  paid 
to  his  writings,  which  had  been  given  to  those  of  the  ancient  prophets, 
which,  in  all  probability,  were  read  in  every  assembly  for  Christian 
worship. 

(2.)  When  St.  James  wrote  his  epistle,  the  Christians  were  suflTering  a 
cruel  persecution,  in  consequence  of  which  many  were  not  only  declininer 
in  faith,  love,  and  a  holy  life,  but  also  abused  the  grace  of  (Jod  to  licen- 
tioasness,  boasting  of  a  faith  destitute  of  its  appropriate  fruits;  viz.  :  who 
boasted  of  a  bare  assent  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel,  and  boldly  ufTirmed 
that  this  inoperative  and  dead  faith  was  alone  sufficient  to  ohtnin  salva- 
tion. fChnpter  11.  verse  17,  et  aeq.)  Hence  we  may  easily  perceive,  that 
the  apostle's  scope,  was  not  to  treat  of  the  doctrine  of  justification  ;  but, 
the  state  of  tlie  church  requiring  it,  to  correct  those  crroTs  in  doctrine^ 
and  those  sinful  practices,  which  hud  crept  into  the  church,  and  particu- 
larly to  expose  that  fundamental  error  of  a  dead  faith  unproductive  qf 


OR  HISTORICAL  SENSE  OF  SCRIPTURE.  125 

good  works.  This  observation  further  shows  the  true  way  of  reconciling 
the  supposed  contradiction  between  the  apostles  Paul  and  James,  concern- 
ing the  doctrine  of  seilvaiion  by  faith. 

V.  The  consideration  of  the  Place  where  a  Book 
was  written,  as  well  as  of  the  nature  of  the  place,  and 
the  customs  which  obtained  there,  is  likewise  of  great  im- 
portance. 

The  first  Psalm  being  written  in  Palestine,  the  comparison  (in  ver.  4,)  of 
the  ungodly  to  chaff  driven  away  by  the  wind,  will  become  more  evident, 
when  it  is  recollected  that  the  threshing-floors  in  that  country  were  not 
under  cover,  as  those  in  our  modern  barns  are,  but  that  they  were  formed 
In  the  open  air,  without  the  walls  of  cities,  and  in  lofty  situations,  in  order 
that  the  wheat  might  be  the  more  effectually  separated  from  the  chaff  by 
the  action  of  the  wind.  (See  Hosea  xiii.  3.)  hi  like  manner,  the  know- 
ledge of  the  nature  of  the  Arabian  desert,  through  which  the  children  of 
Israel  journeyed,  is  necessary  to  the  correct  understanding  of  many  pas- 
sages in  the  books  of  Exodus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy,  which  were 
written  in  that  desert. 

VI.  A  knowledge  of  the  Occasion  on  which  a  book 
was  written,  will  greatly  help  to  the  understanding  of  the 
Scriptures,  particularly  the  Psalms,  many  of  which  have 
no  title.  The  occasion  in  this  case,  must  be  sought  from 
internal  circumstances. 

Psalm  xlii.  was  evidently  written  by  David,  when  he  was  in  circum- 
stances of  the  deepest  afRiction :  but,  if  we  compare  it  with  the  history  of 
the  conspiracy  of  Absalom,  aided  by  Ahilhopel,  who  had  deserted  the 
councils  of  his  sovereign,  as  related  in  2  Sam.  xv.,  and  also  with  the  cha- 
racter of  the  country  whither  David  fled,  we  shall  have  a  key  to  the 
meaning  of  that  psalm,  which  will  elucidate  it  with  equal  beauty  and 
propriety. 

VII.  A  knowledge  of  Sacred  and  Profane  History 
is  of  great  importance  to  the  interpretation  of  the  Bible, 
not  only  as  it  enables  us  to  trace  the  fulfilment  of  pro- 
phecy, but  also  because  it  enables  us  to  explain  many 
customs  and  institutions  which  the  Jews  borrowed  from 
neighbouring  heathen  nations,  notwithstanding  they  were 
forbidden  to  have  any  intercourse  with  them. 

A  judicious  comparison  of  the  notions  that  obtained  among  ancient,  and 
comparatively  uncultivated  nations,  with  those  entertained  by  the  He- 
brews or  Jews,  will,  from  tlieir  similitude,  enable  us  to  enter  more  fully 
into  the  meaning  of  the  sacred  writers.  Thus  many  pleasing  illustrations 
of  patriarchal  life  and  manners  may  be  obtained  by  comparing  the  wri- 
tings of  Homer  and  Hesiod  with  the  accounts  given  by  Moses:  such  com- 
parisons are  lobe  found  in  the  best  of  the  larger  philological  commentaries. 

In  order,  however,  that  we  may  correctly  explain  the 
manners,  customs,  or  practices,  referred  to  by  the  sacred 
writers  at  different  times,  it  is  necessary  that  we  should 
investigate  the  laws,  opinions,  and  principles  of  those 
nations  among  whom  the  Hebrews  resided  for  a  long  time, 

11* 


126  ^N  "^"^  LITERAL,  GRAMMATICAL, 

or  with  whom  they  held  a  close  intercourse,  and  from 
whom  it  is  probable  they  received  sonic  of  them. 

The  Hebrews,  from  their  long  residence  in  Egypt,  seem  to  have  derived 
8ome  expressions  and  modes  of  thinking  from  their  oppressors.  A  single 
example  will  suffice  to  illustrate  this  remark.  Under  the  Jewish  theo- 
cracy, the  judges  are  represented  as  holy  persons,  and  as  sitting  in  tho 
place  of  Jehovah.  The  Egyptians  regarded  their  sovereigns  in  this  light. 
Hence  it  has  been  conjectured,  that  liie  Israelites,  just  on  ihtir  exit  from 
Egypt,  called  their  rulers  ^od»,  not  only  in  poetry,  but  also  in  tlie  com- 
mon language  of  their  laws.  See  Exod.  xxi.  6,  where  the  woid  judges  is, 
ia  the  original  Hebrew,  gods, 

VIII.  Chronology,  or  the  science  of  computing  and 
adjusting  periods  of  time,  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
towards  understanding  the  historical  parts  of  the  Bible, 
not  only  as  it  shows  the  order  and  connexion  of  the 
various  events  therein  recorded,  but  likewise  as  it  enables 
us  to  ascertain  the  accomplishment  of  many  of  the  pro- 
phecies, and  sometimes  leads  to  the  discovery  and  cor- 
rection of  mistakes  in  numbers  and  dates,  which  have 
crept  into  particular  texts.  The  clironology  in  the  mar- 
gin of  our  larger  English  Bibles  is  called  the  Usserian 
Chronology,  being  founded  on  the  Annales  Veteris  et  Novi 
Testamenti  of  the  eminently  learned  Archbishop  Usiier. 

IX.  To  all  these  are  to  be  added  a  knowledge  of  Bib- 
lical Antiquities  ;  which  include  Geography,  Gene- 
alogy, Natural  History,  and  Philosopliy,  Learning  and 
Philosophical  Sects,  Manners,  Customs,  and  Private  Life, 
of  the  Jews  and  other  Nations  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
A  concise  sketch  of  the  principal  topics  comprised  under 
this  head,  is  given  in  the  Third  Part  of  this  manual. 

X.  Lastly,  in  order  to  enter  fully  into  the  meaning  of 
the  sacred  writers,  especially  of  the  New  Testament,  it  i.s 
necessary  that  the  reader  in  a  manner  identify  himself 
with  them,  and  invest  himself  with  their  Affections  or 
feelings;  and  also  familiarize  himself  with  the  sentiment.^, 
&c.  of  those  to  whom  the  diflerent  books  or  epi.stles  were 
addressed. 

This  canon  is  of  considerable  Importance,  as  well  In  the  investigation 
of  words  and  phrases,  as  in  the  hiterpretatlon  of  the  sacred  vojuiiu',  and 
particularly  of  the  prayers  and  imprecations  related  or  cniUaiiKMl  tlicrdn. 
If  the  assistance,  which  may  be  derived  from  a  carelul  study  of  the 
affections  and  feelings  of  the  Inspired  writers,  be  disregarded  or  negl'Cted^ 
It  will  be  pcarc«'ly  possible  to  avoid  erroneous  expositions  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. Daily  observation  and  experience  prove,  how  much  of  its  energy 
and  perspicuity  familiar  discourse  derives  from  the  affections  of  the 
ipeakers:  and  also  that  the  same  words,  when  jironounced  under  the  In- 
fluence of  different  emuUons  convey  very  different  meanings. 


OR  HISTORICAL  SENSE  OF  SCRIPTURE.  127 


§  5.— Ancient  Versions. 

Of  the  Ancient  Versions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
their  uses  in  sacred  criticism,  an  account  has  already  been 
given  in  pages  83 — 90.  It  may  here  be  remarked,  that, 
to  those  who  are  able  to  consult  them,  these  versions 
afford  a  very  valuable  aid  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
Bible  :  for  they  were  the  works  of  men,  who  enjoyed 
several  advantages  above  the  moderns,  for  understanding 
the  original  languages  and  the  phraseology  of  Scripture. 
A  single  instance  will  illustrate  the  propriety  of  this 
remark. 

In  the  first  promulgation  of  the  Gospel  to  mankind,  (Gen.  iii.  15.)  Gfod 
said  to  the  serpent  that  beguiled  our  first  parents,  And  I  will  put  enmity 
bettceen  thee  and  the  woman,  and  between  thy  seed  and  her  seed,  and  IT, 
(that  i.s,  the  seed  of  the  woman,  as  our  autiiorized  translation  rightly  ax.- 
jpoundsil.)  shall  bruise  thy  head,  and  thou  shalt  bruise  his  heel.  But  in 
the  Anglo-Romish  version,  after  the  Latin  vulgate,  (which  has  ipsa  con- 
teret  caput  tuum,)  it  is  rendered,  She  shall  bruise  his  head,  as  if  a  woman 
should  do  it:  which  the  Romanists  interpreting  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
ascribe  to  her  this  great  victory  and  triumph  over  sin  and  Satan,  and  are 
taught  to  say,  in  their  addresses  to  her,  "  Adoro  et  benedico  sanctissimoa 
pedes  tuos,  quibus  antiqui  serpentis  caput  calcasti ;"  that  is,  "  I  adore  and 
bless  tliy  most  holy  feet,  whereby  thou  hast  bruised  the  head  of  the  old 
serpent."  That  this  rendering  of  the  Romanists  is  erroneous  is  proved  by 
the  Septuagint  Greek  version,  by  the  Chaldee  paraphrase,  and  by  the 
Syriac  version,  all  of  which  refer  the  pronoun  IT  to  the  seed  of  the  woman, 
and  not  to  the  woman  herself  (Bp.  Beveridge's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  193. 
vol.  ix.  pp.  233,  234.  Agier,  Proph^ties  concernant  Jesus  Christ  etl'Eglise, 
pp.  243,  244.) 


§  6.— On  Commentators. 


I.  Nature  and  Classes  of  Commentators. 

Commentators  are  writers  of  Books  of  Annotations  on 
Scripture :  they  have  been  divided  into  the  following 
classes,  viz : 

1.  Wholly  spiritual,  or  figurative  ; — this  class 'of  expositors  proceed  on 
the  principle,  that  the  Scriptures  are  every  where  to  be  taken  in  the 
fullest  sense  of  which  they  will  admit: — a  principle,  of  all  others  the 
most  unsafe,  and  most  calculated  to  mislead  the  student. 

2.  Literal  and  Critical; — those  who  apply  themselves  to  explain  the 
mere  letter  of  the  Bible. 

3.  Wholly  practical  /—those  who  confine  themselves  to  moral  and  doc- 
trinal observations :  and, 

4.  Those  who  unite  critical,  philological,  and  practical  observations. 

Expository  writings  may  also  be  classed  into  Scholiasts^ 
or  writers  of  short  explanatory  notes,  who  particularly 
aim  at  brevity; — Commentators,  or  authors  of  a  series  of 


J28  ^N  THE  SENSE  OF  SCRIPTURE. 

perpetual  annotations,  in  which  the  train  of  their  thoughts, 
and  the  coherence  of  their  expressions,  are  pointed  out ; — 
and  ParaphrastSy  who  expound  a  sacred  writer  by  ren- 
dering his  wliole  discourse,  as  well  as  every  expression,  in 
equivalent  terms. 

II.  Use  of  ComnDentators,  and  in  what  manner  they 
are  to  be  consulted. 

The  use  of  Commentators  is  two-fold :  first,  that  we 
may  acquire  from  them  a  method  of  interpreting  the 
Scriptures  correctly  ;  and  second,  that  we  may  understand 
obscure  and  difficult  passages.  The  best  commentators 
only  should  be  consulted  ;  and,  in  availing  ourselves  of 
their  labours,  the  following  hints  will  be  found  useful : 

1.  We  should  take  care  that  the  reading  of  commentators 
does  not  draw  us  away  from  studying  the  Scriptures  for  our- 
selves, from  investigating  their  real  meaning,  and  meditating 
on  their  important  contents. 

This  would  be  to  frustrate  the  very  design  for  which  commentaries  are 
wrillen,  namely,  to  facilitate  our  labours,  to  direct  us  aright  where  we 
are  in  danger  of  falling  into  error,  to  remove  doubts  and  difficulties  which 
we  are  ourselves  unable  to  solve,  to  reconcile  apparently  contradictory 
passages,  and,  in  short,  to  elucidate  whatever  is  obscure  or  unintelligible 
to  us.  No  commentators,  therefore,  should  be  consulted  until  we  have 
previously  investigated  the  sacred  writings  for  ourselves,  making  use  of 
every  grammatical  and  historical  help,  comparing  the  scope,  context, 
parallel  passages,  the  analogy  of  faith,  &c. :  and  even  then,  commentaries 
should  be  resorted  to,  only  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  what  was  not 
sufficiently  clear,  or  of  removing  our  doubts.  This  method  of  studying 
the  sacred  volume  will,  unquestionably,  prove  a  slow  one;  but  the  stu- 
dent will  proceed  with  certainty;  and,  if  he  have  patience  and  resolution 
enouirh  to  persevere  in  it,  he  will  ultimately  attain  greater  proficiency  in 
the  knowledge  of  the  s^criptures,  than  those  who,  disregarding  this  me- 
thod, shall  have  recourse  wholly  to  assistances  of  other  kinds. 

2.  We  should  not  inconsiderately  assent  to  the  interpretation 
of  any  expositor  or  commentator,  or  yield  a  blind  and  servile 
obedience  to  his  authority. 

3.  Wiicre  it  does  not  appear  that  either  ancient  or  modern 
interpreters  had  more  knowledge  than  ourselves  respecting 
particular  passaires  ;  and  where  they  offer  only  coniectiires,— 
111  such  cases  their  expositions  ought  to  be  subjected  to  a  strict 
examination.  If  their  reasons  are  then  found  to  be  valid,  we 
should  give  our  assent  to  them  :  but,  on  the  contrary,  if  they 
prove  to  be  false,  improbable,  and  insufficient,  they  must  be 
altogether  rejected. 

4.  Lastly,  as  there  are  some  commentaries,  which  are  either 
wholly  com|)ilcd  from  the  previous  labours  of  others,  or  which 
contain  observations  extracted  from  their  writings,  if  any  thin^ 
appear  conftipcd  and  per|)lexed  in  such  commentaries,  the  ori- 
ginal sources  whence  they  were  compiled  must  be  referred  to, 
and  (iiliguntly  consulted. 


FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE  OF  SCRIPTURE.  129 


CHAPTER  II. 

ON   THE   INTERPRETATION   OP  THE   FIGURATIVE   LANGUAGE   OF   SCRIPrURE, 

Figurative  language  had  its  rise  in  the  first  ages  of 
mankind :  the  scarcity  of  words  occasioned  them  to  be 
used  for  various  purposes :  and  thus  figurative  terms, 
which  constitute  the  beauty  of  language,  arose  from  its 
poverty  ;  and  it  is  still  the  same  in  all  uncivilized  nations. 
Figures,  in  general,  may  be  described  to  be  that  language, 
which  is  prompted  either  by  the  imagination  or  by  the 
passions.  They  are  commonly  divided  into,  1.  Tropes, 
or  Figures  of  Words,  which  consist  in  the  advantageous 
alteration  of  a  word,  or  sentence,  from  its  original  and 
proper  signification,  to  another  meaning  ;  and,  2.  Fi- 
gures of  Thought,  which  suppose  the  words  to  be  used 
in  their  literal  and  proper  meaning,  and  the  figure  to 
consist  in  the  turn  of  the  thought ;  as  is  the  case  in  ex- 
clamations, apostrophes,  and  comparisons  ;  where,  though 
we  vary  the  words  that  are  used,  or  translate  them  from 
one  language  into  another,  we  may,  nevertheless,  still  pre- 
serve the  same  figure  in  the  thought.  This  distinction, 
however,  is  of  no  great  use,  as  nothing  can  be  built  upon 
it  in  practice :  neither  is  it  always  very  clear.  It  is  of 
little  importance,  whether  we  give  to  some  particular 
mode  of  expression  the  name  of  a  trope,  or  of  a  figure, 
provided  we  remember  that  figurative  language  always  im- 
ports some  colouring  of  the  imagination,  or  some  emotion 
of  passion  expressed  in  our  style. 

Disregarding,  therefore,  the  technical  distinctions,  which 
have  been  introduced  by  rhetorical  writers,  we  shall  first 
offer  some  hints  by  which  to  ascertain  and  correctly  inter- 
pret the  tropes  and  figures  occurring  in  the  sacred  wri- 
tings ;  and  in  the  following  sections  we  shall  notice  the 
principal  of  them,  with  a  few  illustrative  examples. 


Section  I.— General  Observations  on  the  Interpretation  of  Tropes  and 
Figures. 

In  order  to  understand  fully  the  figurative  language  of 
the  Scriptures,  it  is  requisite,  first,  to  ascertain  and  de- 


130  ON  THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  THK 

termine  wliat  is  really  figurative,  lest  we  take  that  to  be 
literal  which  is  figurative,  as  the  disciples  of  our  Lord  and 
the  Jews  frequently  did,  or  lest  we  pervert  the  literal  mean- 
ing of  words  by  a  figurative  interpretation  ;  and  secondly, 
when  we  have  ascertained  what  is  really  figurative,  to  in- 
terpret it  correctly,  and  deliver  its  true  sense.  For  this 
purpose  the  following  hints  will  be  found  useful  in  addition 
to  a  consideration  of  historical  circumstances,  parallel 
passages,  and  the  context. 

1.  The  literal  meaning  of  words  must  be  retained,  more  in 
the  historical  books  of  Scripture,  than  in  those  which  are 
poeticd 

We  are  not,  therefore,  to  look  for  a  figurative  style  in  the  historical 
books :  and  still  less  are  historical  narratives  to  be  changed  into  allegories 
and  parables,  unless  these  are  obviously  apparent.  Those  expositors, 
therefore,  violate  Uiis  rule,  who  allegorize  the  history  of  tlie  fall  of  meui, 
and  that  of  the  prophet  Jonah. 

2.  The  literal  meaning  of  words  is  to  be  given  up,  if  it  be 
either  improper,  or  involve  an  imi)Ossibility,  or  where  words, 
properly  taken,  contain  any  thing  contrary  to  the  doctrinal  or 
moral  precepts  delivered  in  other  parts  of  Scripture.    Thus, 

(I.)  The  expressions  in  Jer.  i.  18,  are  therefore  necessarily  to  be  under- 
stood figuratively.  s?o,  the  literal  sense  of  Isa.  i.  25,  is  equally  inapplica- 
ble ;  but  in  the  following  verse  the  prophet  explains  it  in  Uie  proper 
words. 

(2.)  In  Psal.  xviii.  2,  God  is  termed,  a  rock,  a  fortress,  a  deliverer,  a 
buckler,  a  horn  of  salvation,  and  a  high  totcer  ;  it  is  obvioua  that  these 
predicates  are  metaphorically  spoken  of  the  Almighty. 

(3.)  Matt.  viii.  22 — "  Let  tne  dead  bury  their  dead,  cannot  possibly  be  ap- 
plied to  those  who  are  really  and  naturally  dead  ;  and  consequently  must 
be  understood  figuratively.  "  Leave  those  who  are  spiritually  dead  to 
perform  the  rites  of  burial  for  such  as  are  naturally  dead." 

(4.)  The  command  of  Jesus  Christ,  related  in  Matt,  xviii.  8,  9,  if  inter- 
preted literally,  is  directly  at  variance  with  tlie  sixth  commandment, 
CExod.  XX.  13,)  and  must  consequently  be  understood  figuratively. 

(5.)  Whatever  is  repugnant  to  natural  reason,  cannot  be  Uie  true 
meaning  of  the  Scriptures;  for  God  is  the  original  of  natural  tiuth,  aa 
well  as  of  that  which  comes  by  particular  revelation.  No  proposition, 
therefore,  which  is  repugnant  to  tlie  fundamental  principles  of  reas<-in,  can 
he  the  sense  of  any  part  of  the  word  of  God ;  hence  the  words  of  Christ, 
This  is  my  body,  and,  This  is  my  blood,  (Matt.  xxvi.  26,  28.)  are  not  to  be 
imderstood  in  that  sense  which  makes  for  the  doctrine  of  transulistanil- 
atlon  ;  because  it  is  impossible  that  contradictions  should  be  true;  and  we 
cannot  be  more  certain  that  any  thing  is  true,  than  we  are  that  that  doc 
trine  is  false. 

(6.)  To  change  day  into  night  (Job  xvll.  12.)  is  a  raoral  impossibility, 
contrary  to  common  sense,  and  must  be  a  figurative  expression.  In  Isa. 
1.  5,  6,  the  Jewish  nation  are  described  as  being  sorely  stricken,  or  chas- 
tised, like  a  man  mortally  wounded,  and  destitute  both  of  medicine  aa 
well  as  of  the  means  of  cure.  That  this  description  is  figurative,  ia  evi- 
dent from  the  context ;  for  In  the  two  following  verses  Uie  prophet  deline- 
ates the  condition  of  the  Jews  In  literal  terms. 

It  is  not,  however,  sufficient  to  know  whether  an  expression 
be  figurative  or  not,  but,  when  this  point  is  ascertained,  another 


FIGTJUATIVE  LANGUAGE  OF  SCRIPTURE.  13^ 

of  equal  importance  presents  itself;  namely,  to  interpret  meta- 
phorical expressions,  by  corresponding  and  appropriate  terms. 
In  order  to  accomplish  this  object,  it  is  necessary, 

3.  That  we  inquire  in  what  respects  the  thing  compared,  and 
that  with  which  it  is  comi)ared,  respectively  agree,  and  also  in 
what  respects  they  have  any  affinity  or  resemblance. 

For,  as  a  similitude  is  concealed  in  every  metaphor,  it  is  only  by  dill- 
gent  study  tliat  it  can  be  elicited,  by  carefully  observing  the  points  of 
agreement  between  the  proper,  or  literal,  and  the  figurative  meaning. 
For  instance,  the  prophetic  writers,  and  particularly  Ezekiel,  very  fre- 
quently charge  the  Israelites  with  having  committed  adultery,  and  play- 
ed  the  harlot,  and  with  deserting  Jehovah,  their  husband.  From  the 
slightest  inspection  of  these  passages,  it  is  evident  that  spiritual  adultery, 
or  idolatry,  is  intended.  Now  the  origin  of  this  metaphor  is  to  be  sought 
from  one  and  the  same  notion,  in  which  there  is  an  agreement  between 
adultery  and  the  worship  paid  by  the  Israelites  to  strange  gods.  That 
notion,  or  idea,  is  unfaithfulness;  by  which,  as  a  wife  deceives  her  hus- 
band, so  they  are  represented  as  deceiving  God,  and  as  violating  their 
fidelity  in  forsaking  him. 

4.  Lastly,  in  explaining  the  figurative  language  of  Scripture, 
care  must  be  taken  that  we  do  not  judge  of  the  application  ol 
characters  from  modern  usage;  because  the  inhabitants  of  the 
East  have  very  frequently  atrached  a  character  to  the  idea  ex- 
pressed, widely  different  from  that  which  usually  presents  itself 
to  our  views. 

In  Deut.  xxxiii.  17,  the  glory  of  the  tribe  of  Joseph  is  compared  to  the 
firstlmg  of  a  bullock  ;  in  like  manner  Amos  (iv.  1.)  compares  the  noble 
women  of  Israel  to  the  kine  of  Bashan,  and  Hosea  compares  the  Israelites 
to  refractory  kine  that  shake  off  the  yoke.  If  we  take  these  metaphors 
according  to  their  present  sense,  we  shall  greatly  err.  The  ox-iribe  of 
animals,  whose  greatest  beauty  and  strength  lie  in  their  horns,  was  held 
in  very  high  honour  among  the  ancient  nations,  and  was  much  esteemed 
on  account  of  its  aptitude  for  agricultural  labour  :  hence,  in  the  Ea.st,  it 
is  not  reckoned  disgraceful  to  be  compared  with  these  animals.  In  ihe 
comparison  of  the  tribe  of  Joseph  to  the  firstling  of  a  bullock,  the  point  of 
resemblance  is  strength  and  power.  In  the  comparison  of  the  matrons  of 
Samaria  to  the  kine  of  Bashan,  the  point  of  resemblance  is  luxuiy  and 
wantonness,  flowing  from  their  abundance. 


Section  II. — On  the  Interpretation  of  the  Metonymies  occurring  in 
Scripture. 

A  metonymy  is  a  trope,  by  which  we  substitute  one 
appellation  for  another,  as  the  cause  for  the  effect,  the 
effect  for  the  cause,  the  subject  for  the  adjunct  or  the  ad- 
junct for  the  subject. 

A  Metonymy  of  the  cause  is  used  in  Scripture,  when  the  person  acting 
is  put  for  the  thing  done,  or  the  instrument  by  which  a  thing  is  done  is 
put  for  the  thing  effected,  or  when  a  thing  or  action  is  put  for  the  effect 
produced  by  that  action. 

A  Metonymy  of  the  effect  occurs,  when  the  effect  is  put  for  the  efficient 
cause. 

A  Metonymy  of  the  subject  is,  v/hen  the  subject  is  put  for  the  adjunct, 


132  INTERPRETATION  OF  THE 

that  is,  for  some  circumstance  or  appendage  belonging  to  the  subject; 
when  the  thing  or  place  containing  is  put  for  the  thing  contained  or 
placed ;  when  the  possessor  is  put  for  the  tiling  possessed ;  when  the 
object  is  put  for  the  thing  conversant  about  it ;  or  when  the  thing  signified 
Is  put  for  its  sign. 

A  Metonymy  of  the  adjunct  is,  when  that  which  belongs  to  any  thing 
serves  to  represent  the  thing  Itself. 


§  1.— Metonymy  of  the  Cause. 

I.  Frequently  the  person  acting  is  put  for  the  thing  done. 
Thus, 

1.  Christ  is  put  for  his  doctrine  in  Rom.  xvi.  9. 

2.  The  Holy  Spirit  for  his  Effects  and  Operations,  in  2  Cor.  iii.  6, 
Psalm  li.  10;  Injiuences,  in  Luke  xi.  13,  and  1  Thess.  v.  19;  a  Divine 
Power,  reigning  in  the  soul  of  the  renewed  man,  in  Luke  i.  46,  47,  com- 
pared with  1  Thess.  v.  23  ;  the  Extraordinary  Gifts  of  the  Spirit,  In 
2  Kings  li.  9.  Dan.  v.  12 ;  and  for  revelations,  visions,  or  ecstacies,  whether 
really  from  the  Holy  Spirit,  or  pretended  to  be  so,  in  Ezek.  xxxvi.  1, 
2  Thess.  ii.  2,  and  Rev.  i.  10. 

3.  Parents,  or  Ancestors,  are  put  for  their  Posterity ;  as  in  Gen.  ix.  27. 
Exod.  V.  2,  and  very  many  other  passages  of  holy  writ. 

4  The  Writer,  or  Author,  is  put  for  his  Book  or  Work:  as  in  Luke  xvi. 
29.  xxiv.  27.  Acts  xv.  21,  xxi.  21,  and  2  Cor,  iii.  15,  in  which  passages 
Moses  and  the  Prophets  respectively  mean  the  Mosaic  and  Prophetic 
writings. 

II.  Sometimes  the  cause  or  instrument  is  put  for  the  thing 
effected  by  it.    Thus, 

\.  ThQ  mouth,  the  lips,  and  the  tongue,  are  respectively  put  for  the 
speech,  in  Deut.  xvii.  6,  xix.  15.     Matt,  xviii.  16,  &.C. 

2.  The  mouth\s  also  put  for  commandment  in  Gen.  xlv.  21.  (marginal 
rendering)  (Heb.  tnouth.)  Numb.  iii.  16.  39,  xx.  24,  xxvii.  14.  Deut.  1. 
26.  43.  and  in  Prov.  v.  3.  the  palate  (marginal  rendering)  is  also  put  for 
speech. 

3.  The  throat  is  also  put  for  loud  speaking,  in  Isa,  Iviii.  1.  Cry  aloud, 
CHeb.  with  the  throat.) 

4.  The  ha7id  is  ordinarily  put  for  its  writing,  1  Cor.  xvi.  21.  Col.  iv.  18. 

5.  The  8 u- or d,  famine,  and  pestilence,  likewise  respectively  denote  the 
eflfects  of  those  scourges,  as  in  Ezek.  vii.  15. 


5  2.— Metonymy  of  the  Eflect. 

III.  Sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  the  effect  is  put  for  the 
cause. 

Thus  God  is  called  Salvation,  that  is,  th*Autlior  of  it,  Exod.  xv.  2,  our 
life  and  the  length  of  our  days,  Deut.xxx.  20,  nur  strength,  Psalm  xvlli.  1, 
Ho  Christ  is  termed  Salvation,  Isa.  xlix.  6.  Luke  li.  30,  Life,  John  xl.  26. 
and  the  Resurrection  in  the  same  place. 


HGURATIVE  LANGUAGE  OP  SCRIPTURE.  I33 


§  3.— Metonymy  of  the  Subject. 

rv.  Sometimes  the  subject  is  put  for  the  adjunct,  that  is, 
for  some  circumstance  or  appendage  belonging  to,  or  depend- 
ing upon  the  subject.    Thus, 

The  heart  is  frequently  used  for  the  will  and  affection,  Deut.  iv.  29,  vi. 
6,  dec. :  £uid  for  the  understanding,  Deut.  iv.  39,  vi.  6.  Luke  ii.  51,  &c. 

v.  Sometimes  the  place  or  thmg  denotes  that  which  is  con- 
tained in  such  place  or  thing. 

The  earth  and  the  world  are  frequently  put  for  the  n  en  that  dwell 
therein,  as  in  Gen.  vi.  11.  Psalm  xcvi.  13,  &c.  The  Bowses  of  Israel  and 
Levi  denote  their  several /amt7tea,  in  Exod.  ii.  1,  and  Ezek.  iii.  1. 

VI.  Sometimes  the  possessor  of  a  thing  is  put  for  the  thing 


Thus,  Deut.  ix.  1.  To  possess  nations  greater  and  mightier  than  thyself, 
means  to  possess  the  countries  of  the  Gentiles.  See  also  Psalm  Ixxix.  7, 
where  Jacob  means  the  land  of  the  Israelites. 

VII.  Frequently  the  object  is  put  for  that  which  is  conversant 
about  it. 

Thus  glory  and  strength  are  put  for  the  celebration  of  the  divine  glory 
and  strength,  in  Psalm  viii,  2j  explained  by  Matt.  xxi.  16,*  see  also  Psalm 
xcvi.  7,  8. 

VIII.  Sometimes  the  thing  signified  is  put  for  its  sign. 

So,  the  strength  cf  God,  in  1  Chron.  xvi.  11,  and  Psalm  cv.  4,  is  the  ark, 
Which  was  a  sign  and  symbol  of  the  divine  presence  and  strength. 

IX.  When  an  action  is  said  to  be  done,  the  meaning  fre- 
quently is,  that  it  is  declared,  or  permitted,  or  foretold,  to  be 
done :  as  in  Gen.  xli.  3.  Jer.  iv.  10.  Matt.  xvi.  9,  &c. 

X.  An  action  is  said  to  be  done,  when  the  giving  of  an  occa- 
Bion  for  it  is  only  intended. 

1  Kings  xiv.  6.  Jeroboam  made  Israel  to  sin,  i.  e.  occasioned  It  by  his 
example  and  command.    See  Acts  i.  18,  Rom.  xlv.  15,  and  1  Cor.  viL  16. 


§  4.— Metonymy  of  the  Adjunct,  in  which  tne  Adjunct  is  put  for  the 

Subject. 

XI.  Sometimes  the  accident,  or  that  which  is  additional  to  a 
thing,  is  put  for  its  subject  in  kind. 

The  abstract  is  put  for  the  concrete.  So  gray  hairs  (Heb.  hoariness  or 
gray -head  edness)  in  Gen.  xlii.  38,  denote  me,  who  am  now  an  old  man 
and  sray-headed ;  abomination  for  an  abominable  thing,  in  Gen.  xlvi.  34, 
and  Luke  xvi.  15. 

XII.  Sometimes  the  thing  contained  is  put  for  the  thing 
containing  it,  and  a  thing  deposited  in  a  place,  for  the  place 
itself. 

Thus  Gen.  xxviii.  22,  means,  this  place  where  I  have  erected  a  pillar 
of  stone,  shall  be  God's  house.  Josh.  xv.  19.  Springs  of  water  denote 
some  portion  of  land,  where  there  may  be  springs.  Matt.  ii.  11.  Treasures 
are  the  cabinets  or  other  vessels  containing  them. 

12 


134  INTERPRETATION  OF  THE 

XIII.  Time  is  likewise  put  for  the  things  which  are  done  or 
happen  in  time,  as  in  1  Chron.  xii.  32.   John  xii.  27. 

XIV.  In  the  Scriptures,  things  are  sometimes  named  or  de- 
scribed according  to  appearances,  or  to  the  opinion  formed  of 
them  by  men,  and  not  as  they  are  in  their  own  nature. 

Thus  Hananiah,  the  opponent  of  Jeremiah,  is  called  a  prophet,  not  be- 
cause he  was  truly  one,  but  was  reputed  to  be  one,  Jer.  xxviil.  1.  5.  10, 
In  Ezek.  xx\.  3,  the  righteous  mean  those  who  had  the  semblance  of 
piety,  but  really  were  not  righteous.  And  in  Luke  ii.  48,  Joseph  is  called 
tlie  Father  of  Christ,  because  he  was  reputed  so  to  be. 

XV.  Sometimes  the  action  or  affection,  which  is  conversant 
about  any  object,  or  placed  upon  it,  is  put  for  the  object  itself. 

Thus,  the  senses  are  put  for  the  objects  perceived  by  them,  as  hearing 
for  doctrine  or  speech,  in  Isa.  xxviii.  9,  (marg.  rend.)  and  liii.  1,  (Heb.) 
In  John  xii.  38,  and  Rom.  x.  16,  the  Greek  word  ukov,  translated  report, 
literally  means  hearing,  and  so  it  is  rendered  in  Gal.  iii.  2.  5.  Hearing  is 
also  put  for  fame  or  rumour  in  Psalm  cxii.  7.  (Heb.)  Ezek.  vii.  26 
Obad.  1.  Hab.  iii.  2.  (Heb.)  Matt.  iv.  24,  xiv.  1,  and  xxiv.  6.  Mark  i.  28, 
and  xiii.  7,  &c. 

The  eye,  in  the  original  of  Numb.  xi.  7.  Lev.  xiii.  55.  Prov.  xxiii.  31. 
Ezek.  i.  4,  viii,  2,  andx.  9,  is  put  for  colours  which  are  seen  by  the  eye. 

XVI.  Sometimes  the  sifirn  is  put  for  the  thing  signified  as  in 
Gen.  xiix.  10.  Isa.xxii.22.  Malt.  x.  34. 

XVII.  Lastly,  the  names  of  things  are  often  put  for  the 
things  themselves,  as  in  Psalm  xx.  1,  cxv.  1.  Acts  h.  21.  Rom. 


Section  HI.— On  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture  Metaphors  and 

Allegories. 

I.  Nature  and  sources  of  Metaphors. 

A  metaphor  is  a  trope,  by  which  a  word  is  diverted 
from  its  proper  and  genuine  signification  to  another  mean- 
ing, for  the  sake  of  comparison,  or  because  there  is  some 
analogy  between  the  similitude,  and  the  thing  signified. 
Of  all  the  figures  of  rhetoric,  the  metaphor  is  that  which 
is  most  frequently  employed,  not  only  in  the  Scriptures, 
but  likewise  in  every  language  :  for,  independently  of  the 
pleasure  which  it  affords,  it  enriches  the  mind  with  two 
ideas  at  the  sa77ie  time,  the  truth  and  the  simiUtiidc.  To 
illustrate  this  definition  : — In  Deut.  xxxii.  42,  we  read,  / 
will  make  mine  arroics  dnmk  with  blood,  and  my  sivord 
shall  devour  Jlcsh,  Here,  the  first  metaphor  is  borrowed 
from  excessive  and  intemperate  drinking,  to  intimate  the 
very  great  eflfiision  of  blood,  and  the  exceeding  greatness 
of  the  ruin  and  destruction  which  would  befall  the  diso- 
bedient Israelites:  the  second  metaphor  is  drawn  from 


FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE  OF  SCRIPTURE.  I35 

the  voracious  appetite  of  a  hungry  beast,  which  in  a 
lively  manner  presents  to  the  mind  the  impossibility  of 
their  escaping  the  edge  of  the  sword,  when  the  wrath  of 
God  should  be  provoked.  The  foundation  of  them  con- 
sists in  a  likeness,  or  similitude  between  the  thing  from 
which  the  metaphor  is  drawn,  and  that  to  which  it  is  ap- 
plied. When  this  resemblance  is  exhibited  in  one,  or  in 
a  few  expressions,  it  is  termed  a  simple  metaphor.  When 
it  is  pursued  with  a  variety  of  expressions,  or  there  is  a 
continued  assemblage  of  metaphor,  it  is  called  an  alh' 
gory.  When  it  is  couched  in  a  short  sentence,  obscure 
and  ambiguous,  it  is  called  a  riddle.  If  it  be  conveyed 
in  a  short  saying  only,  it  is  a  proverb  ;  and  if  the  meta- 
phorical representation  be  delivered  in  the  form  of  a 
history,  it  is  a  parable.  When  the  resemblance  is  far- 
fetched,— as  to  see  a  voice,  (Rev.  i.  12,)  it  is  termed  a 
catachresis.  This  last-mentioned  species  of  figure,  how- 
ever, is  of  less  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Bible  than  any 
of  the  preceding.  Scripture  Metaphors  are  variously  de- 
rived from  the  works  of  nature  — from  the  ordinary  occu- 
pations and  customs  of  life,  as  well  as  from  such  arts  as 
were  at  that  time  practised  ; — from  sacred  topics,  that  is, 
the  Religion  of  the  Hebrews,  and  things  connected  with 
it,  and  also  from  their  Natural  History. 

II.  Nature  of  an  Allegory. 

The  Allegory  is  another  branch  of  the  figurative  lan- 
guage of  Scripture  ;  in  which  a  foreign  or  distant  mean- 
ing is  concealed  under  the  literal  sense  of  the  words.  It 
differs  from  a  metaphor,  in  that  it  is  not  confined  to  a 
word,  but  extends  to  a  thought,  or  even  to  several  thoughts. 
Of  this  species  of  figure  Bishop  Lowth  has  distinguished 
three  kinds,  viz.  : 

1.  The  Allegory  properly  so  called,  and  which  he 
terms  a  continued  metaphor  ; — 2.  The  Parable,  or  simi- 
litude, which  is  discussed  in  the  following  section  : — and, 
3.  The  Mystical  Allegory,  in  which  a  double  meaning 
is  couched  under  the  same  words,  or  when  the  same  pre- 
diction, according  as  it  is  differently  interpreted,  relates  to 
different  events,  distant  in  time,  and  distinct  in  their  na- 
ture. This  case  of  allegory  is  exclusively  derived  from 
things  sacred  ;  and,  while  in  those  other  forms  of  alJe* 
gory,  the  exterior,  or  ostensible  imagery,  is  fiction  only,  in 


X36  INTERPRETATION  OF  THE 

the  mystical  allegory  each  idea  is  equally  agreeable  to 
truth.  As  the  mystical  and  typical  interpretation  of 
Scripture  is  discussed  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this  vo- 
lume, we  shall,  at  present,  consider  allegory,  or  continued 
metaphor,  properly  and  strictly  so  called. 

III.  The  following  rules  may  assist  us  to  determine  the 
meaning  of  an  allegory. 

1.  The  jiroper  or  literal  meaning  of  the  words  must  be  as- 
certained, before  we  attempt  to  explain  an  allegory. 

2.  The  design  of  the  whole  allegory  must  be  investigated ; 
and  the  point  of  comparison  must  not  be  extended  to  all  the 
circumstances  of  an  allegory. 

For  this  purpose,  the  occasion  that  g^ave  rise  to  it  must  be  diligently  ex- 
amined and  considered,  together  with  historical  circumstances,  as  well  as 
the  nature  of  the  thing  spoken  of,  and  also  the  scope  and  context  of  the 
whole  passage,  in  which  it  occurs  ;  because  the  scope  and  interpretation 
of  an  allegory  are  frequently  pointed  out  by  some  explanation  that  i3 
subjoined. 

3.  We  must  not  explain  one  part  literally,  and  another  part 
figuratively. 

Thus  the  whole  of  1  Cor.  iii.  9 — 13,  is  allegorical :  a  comparison  is  thero 
instituted  between  the  office  of  a  teacher  of  religion,  and  that  of  a  builder. 
Hence  a  Christian  congregation  is  termed  a  building ;  its  ministers  are 
the  architects,  some  of  whom  lay  the  foundation  on  which  others  build; 
some  erect  a  superstructure  of  gold  and  silver ;  others  of  wood,  hay,  and 
stubble.  The  sense  concealed  under  the  allegory  is  apparent;  a  Chris- 
tian congregation  is  instructed  by  teachers,  some  of  whom  communicate 
the  first  principles,  others  impart  further  knowledge:  some  deliver  good 
and  useful  things,  (the  truth,)  while  others  deliver  useless  things,  (errone- 
ous doctrines,  such  as  at  that  time  prevailed  in  the  Corinthian  church.) 
That  day  (the  great  day  of  judgment)  will  declare  what  superstructure  a 
man  has  raised;  that  is,  whether  what  he  has  taught  be  good  or  bad. 
And  as  fire  is  the  test  of  gold,  silver,  precious  stones,  wood,  hay,  stubble, 
so  the  great  day  will  be  the  test  of  every  man's  work.  Though  the  whole 
of  this  passage  la  obviously  allegorical,  yet  it  is  understood  literally  by 
the  church  of  Rome,  who  has  erected  upon  it  her  doctrine  of  the  fire  of 
purgatory.  How  contrary  this  doctrine  is  to  every  rule  of  right  interpre- 
tation, is  loo  plain  to  require  any  exposition. 


.Section  IV.— Interpretation  of  Scripture  Parables. 

I.  Nature  of  a  Parable. 

The  word  Parable  is  of  various  import  in  Scripture, 
denoting  a  proverb,  or  short  saying,  a  thing  darkly,  or 
figuratively  expressed,  and  a  similitude,  or  comparison. 
Strictly  speaking,  a  parable  is  a  similitude  taken  from 
things  natural,  in  order  to  instruct  us  in  things  spiritual. 
This  mode  of  instruction  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  an 
admirable  means  of  conveying  moral  lessons  :  ''  by  laying 


FIGURATIMD  LANGUAGE  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


137 


hold  on  the  imagination,  parable  insinuates  itself  into  the 
affections  ;  and,  by  the  intercommunication  of  the  facul- 
ties, the  understanding  is  made  to  apprehend  the  truth 
which  was  proposed  to  the  fancy."  In  a  word,  this 
kind  of  instruction  seizes  us  by  surprise,  and  carries  with 
it  a  force  and  conviction  which  are  almost  irresistible.  It 
is  no  wonder,  therefore,  that  parables  were  made  the 
vehicle  of  natural  instruction  in  the  most  early  times; 
that  the  prophets,  especially  Ezekiel,  availed  themselves 
of  the  same  impressive  mode  of  conveying  instruction  or 
reproof;  and  that  our  Lord,  following  the  same  example, 
also  adopted  it  for  the  same  important  purposes. 

II.  For  the  interpretation  of  a  parable,  (to  which  the 
rules  belonging  to  the  allegory  may  indeed  be  applied,) 
the  following  hints  will  be  found  useful  : 

1.  The  first  excellence  of  a  parable  is,  that  it  turns  upon  an 
image  well  known  and  applicable  to  the  subject,  the  meaning 
of  which  is  clear  and  definite :  for  this  circumstance  will  give 
it  that  perspicuity  which  is  essential  to  every  species  of  alle- 
gory. 

How  clearly  this  rule  applies  to  the  parables  of  our  Lord,  is  obvious  to 
every  reader  of  the  New  Testament.  It  may  suffice  to  mention  his  para- 
ble of  the  Ten  Virgins  (Matt.  xxv.  1 — 13,)  which  is  a  plain  allusion  to 
those  things  which  were  common  at  the  Jewish  marriages  in  those  daj-^s. 
In  like  manner,  the  parables  of  the  lamp,  (Luke  viii.  16,)  of  Vae.  sower  and 
the  seed,  of  the  tares,  of  the  mzistard  seed,  of  the  leaven,  of  the  ?Let  cast 
into  the  sea,  all  of  which  are  related  in  Matt.  xiii.  as  well  as  of  the  house- 
holder that  planted  a  vineyard,  and  let  it  out  to  husbandmen,  (Matt.  xvi. 
33,)  are  all  representations  of  usual  and  common  occurrences,  and  such 
as  the  generality  of  our  Saviour's  hearers  were  daily  conversant  with, 
and  they  were  therefore  selected  by  him  eis  being  the  most  interesting 
and  affecting. 

2.  Further,  the  image  must  be  not  only  apt  and  familiar,  but 
must  also  be  elegant  and  beautiful  in  itself;  and  all  its  parts 
must  be  perspicuous  and  pertinent ;  since  it  is  the  purpose  of 
a  parable,  and  especially  of  a  poetic  parable,  not  only  to  ex- 
plain more  perfectly  some  proposition,  but  frequently  to  give  it 
animation  and  splendour. 

Of  all  these  excellencies  there  cannot  be  more  perfect  examples  than 
the  parables  which  have  just  been  specified  :  to  which  we  may  add,  the 
well  known  parables  of  Jotham,  (Judges'  ix.  7—15  ;)  of  Nathan,  (2  Sam. 
xii.  1—4  ;)  and  of  the  woman  of  Tekoah,  (2  Sam.  xiv.  4—7.) 

3.  As  every  parable  has  two  senses,  the  literal,  or  external, 
and  the  mystical,  or  internal  sense;  the  literal  sense  must  be 
first  explained,  in  order  that  the  correspondence  between  it 
and  the  mystical  sense  may  be  the  more  readily  perceived. 
And  wherever  words  seem  to  be  capable  of  different  senses, 
particularly  in  the  parables  of  Jesus  Christ,  we  may  with  cer- 
tainty conclude  that  to  be  the  true  sense  which  lies  most 

12* 


138  INTERPRETATION  OF  THE 

level  to  the  apprehensions  of  those  to  whom  the  parable  was 
delivered. 

4.  It  is  not  necessary,  in  the  interpretation  of  parables,  tnat 
we  sliould  anxiously  insist  upon  every  sin^'le  word  ;  nor  ought 
we  to  expect  too  curious  an  adaptation  or  accommodation  of 
it,  in  every  part,  to  the  spiritual  meanings  inculcated  by  it ;  for 
many  circumstances  are  introduced  into  parables,  which  are 
merely  ornamental,  and  designed  to  make  the  similitude  more 
pleasing  and  interesting. 

Inattention  to  this  obvious  rule  has  led  many  exposftors  into  the  most 
fanciful  explanations:  resemblances  have  been  accumulated,  which  are 
for  the  most  part  futile,  or  at  best,  of  little  use,  and  manifestly  not  includ- 
ed in  the  scope  of  the  parable.  In  the  application  of  this  rule,  the  two  fol- 
lowing points  are  to  be  considered,  viz. : 

(1.)  Persons  are  not  to  be  compared  with  persons,  but  things  with 
things ;  part  is  not  to  be  compared  witii  part,  but  the  whole  of  the  para- 
ble with  itself.  Thus,  the  similitude  in  Matt.  xiii.  24,  25,  is,  not  with  the 
me7i  there  mentioned,  but  with  the  seed  and  the  pearl :  and  the  construc- 
tion is  to  be  the  same  as  in  verses  31  and  33,  where  the  progress  of  the 
Gospel  is  compared  to  the  grain  of  mustard  seed,  and  to  leaven. 

(2.)  In  parables,  it  is  not  necessary  that  all  the  actions  of  men,  mention- 
ed in  them,  should  be  just  actions,  that  Is  to  say,  morally  just  and  honest : 
for  instance,  the  unjust  steward  (Luke  xvi.  1 — 8,)  is  not  proposed  either 
to  justify  his  dishonesty,  or  as  an  example  to  us  in  cheating  his  lord,  (for 
that  is  merely  ornamental,  and  introduced  to  fill  up  the  story;)  but  as  an 
example  of  his  care  and  prudence  in  providing  for  the  future. 


SECxroN  V.~On  Scripture  Proverbs. 

I.  Nature  of  Proverbs. 

-Proverbs  are  concise  and  senteritious  conimoD  sayings, 
founded  on  a  close  observance  of  men  and  manners. 
They  were  greatly  in  use  among  the  inhabitants  of  Pales- 
tine, in  common  with  other  oriental  nations :  and  the 
teachers  of  mankind  who  had  recourse  to  this  mode 
of  instruction,  in  order  to  render  it  the  more  agree- 
able, added  to  their  precepts  the  graces  of  harmony  ;  and 
decorated  them  with  metaphors,  comparisons,  allusions, 
and  other  elegant  embellishments  of  style. 

II.  Different  kinds  of  Proverbs. 

Proverbs  are  divided  into  two  classes,  viz.  :  1.  Entire 
Sentences  ;  and  2.  Proverbial  Phrases,  which  by  common 
usage  are  admitted  into  a  sentence. 

1.  Examples  of  Entire  Proverbial  Sentence$  occur  In  Gen.  x.  9,  and 
xxli.  14.  1  Sam,  x.  12,  and  xxiv.  13.  2  Sam.  v.  8,  and  xx.  18.  Ezek.  xvl. 
44,  and  xviii.  2.  Luke  Iv.  23.  John  iv,  37,  and  2  Pet.  II.  22 ;  In  which  pas- 
bnges  the  inspired  writers  expressly  stale  the  sentences  to  have  passed 
Into  proverTw. 

2.  Exanii)l('8  of  Proverbial  Phra/ies,  which  Indeed  cannot  be  correctly 
termed  proverbs,  but  which  have  acquired  Uielr  form  and  use,  are  to  be 


FIGLRATIVE  LANGUAGE  OF  SCRIPTURE.  139 

found  in  Deut.  xxv.  4.  1  Kings  xx.  11.  2  Chron.  xxv.  9.  Job.  vi.  5,  xiv. 
19,  and  xxviii.  18.  Psal.  xlii.  7,  and  Ixii.  9.  The  Book  of  Proverbs  like- 
wise contains  many  similar  sentences;  examples  of  which  may  also  be 
seen  in  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastes,  in  some  of  the  Prophets,  as  well  as  in  the 
New  Testament. 

III.  Interpretation  of  the  Proverbs  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

The  Proverbs  occurring  in  the  New  Testament  are  to 
be  explained,  partly  by  the  aid  of  similar  passages  from 
the  Old  Testament,  and  pa«ly  from  the  ancient  writings 
of  the  Jews ;  whence  it  appears  how  much  they  were  in 
use  ^among  that  people,  and  that  they  were  applied  by 
Christ  and  his  apostles,  agreeably  to  common  usage. 


Section  VI.— Concluding  Observations  on  the  Figurative  Language  of 
Scripture. 

Besioes  the  figures  discussed  in  the  preceding  sections, 
there  are  many  others  dispersed  throughout  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  the  infinite  superiority  of  which  over  all  unin- 
spired compositions,  they  admirably  elucidate.  Two  or 
three  of  these,  from  their  importance  and  frequent  occur- 
rence, claim  to  be  noticed  in  this  place. 

1.  A  Synecdoche  is  a  trope  in  which,  1.  The  whole  is  put  for 
2. part;  2.  A  part  is  put  for  the  whole;  3.  A  certain  number 
for  an  uncertain  one ;  4.  A  general  name  for  di  particular  one ; 
and,  5.  Special  words  for  general  ones. 

[i.]  The  whole  is  sometimes  put  for  a  part : 

As,  the  world  for  the  Roman  empire,  which  was  but  a  small,  though 
very  remarkable  part  of  the  world,  in  Acts  xxiv.  5,  and  Rev.  iii.  10.  The 
tcorld  for  the  earth  which  is  a  part  of  it,  2  Pet.  iii.  6  Rom  i.  8  1  John 
v.  19.         ■ 

[ii.]  Sometimes  the  part  is  put  for  the  whole. 

Thus  in  Gen.  i.  5.  8.  13.  19.  23.  31,  the  evenivg  and  morning,  being  the 
principal  parts  of  the  day,  are  put  for  the  entire  day.  So  the  soul  com- 
prehends the  ejitire  man,  Acts  xxvii.  37.  Tree,  in  Gen.  iii.  8,  is  in  the  ori- 
ginal put  for  trees ;  and  man,  in  Gen.  xMx.  6,  for  men. 

[iii.]  A  certain  number  for  an  tmcertain  number,  as  twice  for  several 
times,  in  Psal.  Ixii.  11.  Ten,  for  many,  in  Gen.  xxxi.  7;  and  seven  for  an 
indefinite  number,  in  Gen.  iv.  15,  and  very  many  other  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture. 

[iv]  A  general  name  is  put  for  o, particular  one. 

As  in  Mark  xvi.  15,  where  every  creature  means  all  mankind;  as  flesh 
also  does  in  Gen.  vi.  12.  Psal.  cxlv.  21.  Isa.  xl.  5,  6,  Ixvi.  23.  Matt  xxiv. 
22.  Luke  iii.  6,  and  Rom.  iii.  20. 

[v.]  Sometimes  special  words,  or  particular  names,  are  put  for  such  as 
are  general : 

Thus,  father  is  put  for  any  ancestor  in  Psal.  xxii.  4 ;  father,  for  grand' 
father,  in  2  Sam.  ix.  7,  and  Dan.  v.  U .  \B ;  father  ajci^  mother  iox  all  supe- 
riors, in  Exod.  xx.  12. 

2.  An  Irony  is  a  figure,  in  which  we  speak  one  thing  and  de- 


140  ON  THE  SPIRITUAL 

sign  another,  in  order  to  give  the  greater  force  and  vehemence 
to  our  meaning.  An  irony  is  distinguished  from  the  real  sen- 
timents of  the  speaker,  or  writer,  by  the  accent,  the  air,  the 
extravagance  of  the  praise,  the  character  of  the  person,  or  the 
nature  of  the  discourse. 

Instances  of  irony  may  be  seen  in  1  Kings  xviil.  27,  1  Kings  xxii.  15.  Job 
xii.  2,  and  1  Cor.  iv.  8. 

Under  Uiis  figure  we  may  include  the  Sarcasm  which  may  be  defined 
to  be  an  irony  in  its  superlative  keenness  and  asperity.  See  examples  of 
this  figure  in  Matt,  xxvii.  29,  and  Mark  xv.  32. 

3.  Hyperbole^  in  its  representation  of  things,  or  objects,  either 
magnifies,  or  diminishes  them  beyond  or  below  their  proper 
limits  5  it  is  common  in  all  languages,  and  is  of  frequent  occur- 
rence m  the  Scripture. 

Thus,  a  great  quantity,  or  number,  is  commonly  expressed  by  the  sand 
of  the  sea,  the  dust  of  the  earth,  and  the  stars  of  heaven,  Gen.  xiii.  16,  xli. 
49.  Judges  vii.  12.  1  Sam.  xiii.  5.  1  Kings  iv.  29.  2  Chron.  i.  9.  Jer. 
XV.  8.  Heb.  xi.  12.  In  like  manner  we  meet,  in  Numb.  xiii.  33,  with 
smaller  than  grasshoppers^  to  denote  extreme  diminutiveness  :  2  Sam.  i. 
23,  swifter  than  eagles  to  intimate  extreme  celerity. 


CHAPTER  III. 

ON   THE   SPIRITUAL  INTBRFRBTATION  OP  SCRIPTXTBB. 

Section  I.— General  Observations  on  the  Spiritual  or  Mystical  Sense  of 
Scripture. 

Where,  besides  the  direct  or  immediate  signication  of 
a  passage,  whether  literally  or  figuratively  expressed, 
there  is  attached  to  it  a  more  remote  or  hidden  meaning, 
this  is  termed  the  spiritual  or  mystical  sense  :  and  this 
sense  is  founded  not  on  a  transfer  of  words  from  one  sig- 
nification to  another,  but  on  the  entire  application  of  the 
matter  itself  to  a  difl^erent  subject.     Thus, 

E.xod.  XXX.  10,  and  Levit.  xvi.  What  is  here  said  concerning  the  high 
priest's  entrance  into  the  most  holy  place,  on  the  day  of  atonement,  we 
are  taught  by  St.  Paul  to  understand  spnitually  of  the  entrance  of  Jesus 
Christ  into  Uie  presence  of  God,  with  his  own  blood.  (Heb.  ix.  7—20.) 

The  spiritual  sense  of  Scripture  has  frequently  been 
divided  into  allegorical,  typical,  and  parabolic. 

1.  The  Allegorical  Sense  is,  when  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, besides  the  literal  sense,  signify  any  thing  belong- 
ing to  faith,  or  spiritual  doctrine. 

Such  is  the 8en.se  which  is  required  rightly  to  understand  Gal.  Jv.  24,  In 
our  version  rendered,  which  things  are  an  allegory;  literally,  rrhich  thing* 
are  alhgorically  .spoken,  or,  which  things  are  thus  allegorized  by  me;  that 
l8,  und«-r  tlie  veil  of  the  literal  sense  they  fUrther  contain  a  spiritual  or 
mystical  sense. 


INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTLHE.  I4I 

2.  The  Typical  Sense  is,  when,  under  external  objects, 
or  prophetic  visions,  secret  things  are  represented,  whether 
present  or  future ;  especially  when  certain  transactions, 
recorded  in  the  Old  Testament,  presignify,  or  shadow 
forth  those  related  in  the  New  Testament. 

Thus,  in  Psal.  xcv.  11,  the  words,  they  should  not  enter  into  my  rest, 
literally  understood,  signify  the  entrance  of  the  Israelites  into  the  Promised 
Land ;  but,  typically,  the  entering  into  rest,  and  the  enjoyment  of  hea- 
ven, through  the  merits  and  rnediation  of  Jesus  Christ,  as  is  largely  shown 
in  the  third  and  fourth  chapters  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

3.  The  Parabolic  Sense  is,  when,  besides  the  plain  and 
obvious  meaning  of  the  thing  related,  an  occult  or 
spiritual  sense  is  intended.  As  this  chiefly  occurs  in 
passages  of  a  moral  tendency,  the  parabolic  has  by  some 
writers  been  termed  the  moral,  or  tropological  sense. 

Of  this  description  is  the  parable  of  the  talents  :  the  design  of  which  i3 
to  show  that  the  duties  which  men  are  called  to  perform,  are  suited  to 
their  situations,  and  the  talents  which  they  severally  receive;  that, 
whatever  good  a  man  possesses,  he  has  received  from  God,  as  well  as  the 
ability  to  improve  that  good ;  and  that  the  grace  and  temporal  mercies 
of  God  are  suited  to  the  power  which  a  man  has  of  improving  them. 
Thus,  also,  the  injunction  in  Deut.  xxv.  4,  relative  to  muzzling  the  ox, 
while  treading  out  the  com,  is  explained  by  St.  Paul,  with  reference  to 
the  right  of  maintenance  of.  ministers  of  the  Gospel.  (1  Cor.  ix.  9 — 11.) 


Section  n.— Rules  for  the  Spiritual  or  Mystical  Interpretation  of  Scripture. 

Some  injudicious  expositors  having  unduly  preferred 
the  spiritual,  or  mystical  sense,  to  the  literal  sense,  which 
is  undoubtedly  first  in  point  of  nature  as  well  as  in  order 
of  signification;  others  have  been  induced  to  conclude 
that  no  such  interpretation  is  admissible.  "  A  principle," 
however,  "is  not  therefore  to  be  rejected,  because  it  has 
been  abused  :  since  human  errors  can  never  invalidate 
the  truth  of  God."  The  following  hints  will  be  found 
useful  for  the  spiritual  interpretation  of  Scripture. 

In  this  department  of  sacred  literature  it  may  be  consi- 
dered as  an  axiom,  that  the  spiritual  meaning  of  a  passage 
is  there  only  to  be  sought,  where  it  is  evident,  from  cer- 
taiii  criteria,  that  such  meaning  was  designed  by  the 
Holy  Spirit. 

The  criteria,  by  whicn  to  ascertain  whether  there  is  a 
latent  spiritual  meaning  in  any  passage  of  Scripture,  are 
two-fold  :  either  they  are  seated  in  the  text  itself,  or  they 
are  to  be  found  in  some  other  passages. 


142  ON  THE  SPIRITUAL 

1.  Where  these  criteria  are  seated  in  the  text,  vestiges  of  a 
spiritual  meaning  are  discernible,  when  the  things,  which  are 
affirmed  concerning  the  person  or  thing  immediately  treated 
of,  are  so  august  and  illustrious  that  they  cannot  in  any  way 
be  applied  to  it,  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  words. 

The  writings  of  the  prophets,  especially  those  of  Isaiah,  abound  with 
instances  of  this  kind.  Thus,  in  the  I4th,  40th,  41st,  and  49th  chaptera 
of  that  evangelical  prophet,  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish 
captivity  is  announced  in  the  most  lofty  and  magnificent  terms.  If  we 
compare  this  description  with  the  accounts  actually  given  of  their  return 
to  Palestine  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  we  shall  not  find  any  thing  corres- 
ponding with  the  events  so  long  and  so  beautifully  predicted  by  Isaiah, 
In  this  description,  therefore,  of  their  deliverance  from  captivity,  we  must 
loolc  beyond  it  to  that  infinitely  higher  deliverance,  which,  in  the  fulness 
of  time,  was  accomplished  by  Jesus  Christ. 

2.  Where  the  spiritual  meaning  of  a  text  is  latent,  the  Holy 
Spirit  (under  whose  direction  the  sacred  penman  wrote)  some- 
times clearly  and  expressly  asserts,  that  one  thing  or  person 
was  divinely  constituted  or  appointed  to  be  a  figure  or  symbol 
of  another  thing  or  person :  in  which  case  the  indisputable 
testimony  of  eternal  truth  removes  and  cuts  off  every  ground 
of  doubt  and  uncertainty. 

For  instance,  if  we  compare  Psalm  ex.  4,  with  Ileb.  vil.  1,  we  shall  find 
that  Melchisedec  was  a  type  of  Messiah,  the  great  high  priest  and  king. 
So  Hagar  and  <S'aruA  were  types  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Churches. 
(Gal.  iv.  22—24.) 

3.  Sometimes,  however,  the  mystical  sense  is  intimated  by 
the  Holy  Si)irit  in  a  more  obscure  manner  :  and,  without  exclu- 
ding the  practice  of  sober  and  pious  meditation,  we  are  led  by 
various  intimations  (which  require  very  diligent  observation 
and  study)  to  the  knowledge  of  the  spiritual  or  mystical 
meaning. 

This  chiefly  occurs  in  the  following  cases : 

1.  When  the  antitype  is  proposed  under  figurative  names  taken  from 
the  Old  Testament. 

Tims,  in  1  Cor.  v.  7,  Christ  is  called  the  paschal  lamb ;— in  1  Cor.  xv. 
4.'},  he  is  called  the  last  Adam ;  the  first  Adam,  therefore,  was  in  some 
respect  a  type  or  figure  of  Christ. 

[ii.]  When,  by  a  manifest  allusion  of  words  and  phrases,  the  inspired 
writers  refer  one  thing  to  another.  t 

Thus,  from  Isa.  Ix.  4,  which  alludes  to  the  victory  obtained  by  Gideon 
(Judges  vii.  22,)  we  learn  that  this  represents  the  victory  which  Christ 
ahould  obtain  by  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  as  Vitringa  has  largely 
shown  on  Uiis  passage. 

So,  when  St.  Paul  is  arguing  against  the  Jews  from  the  types  of  Sarah, 
Hagar,  Melcliisedec,  &c.  he  supposes  that  in  these  persons  there  were 
aome  things  in  which  Christ  and  his  church  were  delineQled,  and  that 
these  things  were  admitted  by  his  opponents:  otherwise,  his  arguments 
would  be  inconclusive. 


Section  III.— On  the  interpretation  of  Types. 

I.  Nature  of  a  Type,  and  its  different  species. 

A  type,  in  its  primary  and  literal  meaning,  simply  de* 


INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE.  J  43 

notes  a  rough  draught,  or  less  accurate  model,  from  which 
a  more  perfect  image  is  made  :  but,  in  the  sacred  or 
theological  sense  of  the  term,  a  type  may  be  defined  to  be 
a  symbol  of  something  future  and  distant,  or  an  example 
prepared  and  evidently  designed  by  God  to  prefigure  that 
future  thing.  What  is  thus  prefigured  is  called  the 
antitype. 

In  the  examination  of  the  sacred  writings  three  species 
of  types  present  themselves  to  our  notice,  viz. : 

1.  Legal  Types,  or  those  contained  in  the  Mosaic  law. 
On  comparing  the  history  and  economy  of  Moses  with 
the  whole  of  the  New  Testament,  it  evidently  appears, 
that  the  ritual  law  was  typical  of  the  Messiah  and  of 
Gospel  blessings  :  and  this  point  has  been  clearly  esta- 
blished by  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  in  his  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews. 

2.  Prophetical  Types  are  thoye  by  which  the  divinely 
inspired  prophets  prefigured  or  signified  things  either 
present  or  future,  by  means  of  external  symbols.  Of  this 
description  is  the  prophet  Isaiah's  going  naked  (that  is, 
without  his  prophetic  garment,)  and  barefoot,  (Isa.  xx.  2,) 
to  prefigure  the  fatal  destruction  of  the  Egyptians  and 
Ethiopians. 

3.  Historical  Types  are  the  characters,  actions,  and 
fortunes  of  some  eminent  persons  recorded  in  the  Old 
Testament,  so  ordered  by  Divine  Providence  as  to  be 
exact  prefigurations  of  the  characters,  actions,  and  for- 
tunes of  future  persons  who  should  arise  under  the  Gospel 
dispensation. 

Great  caution  is  necessary  in  the  interpretation  of  types; 
for  unless  we  have  the  authority  of  the  sacred  writers 
themselves  for  it,  we  cannot  conclude  with  certainty  that 
this  or  that  person  or  thing,  which  is  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament,  is  a  type  of  Christ  on  account  of  the  re- 
semblance which  we  may  perceive  between  them  :  but 
we  may  admit  it  as  probable. 

II.  Hints  for  the  interpretation  of  Types. 

1.  There  must  be  a  fit  application  of  the  Type  to  the  Anti- 
type 

This  canon  is  of  great  importance :  and  inattention  to  it  has  led  fan- 
ciful expositors  into  the  most  unfounded  interpretations  of  holy  writ.  In 
further  illustration  of  this  rule,  it  may  be  remarked, 

[i.]  The  type  itself  must,  in  the  first  instance,  be  explained  according  to 
its  literal  sense ;  and  if  any  part  of  it  appear  to  be  obscure,  such  obscurity 


144  ON  THE  INTERPRETATION 

must  be  removed :  as  in  the  history  of  Jonah,  who  wqb  swallowed  by  a 
great  fish,  and  cast  ashore  on  the  third  day. 

[ii.]  The  analogy  between  the  thing  prefiguring,  and  the  thing  prefi- 
gured must  be  soberly  sliown  in  all  its  parts. 

2.  There  is  often  more  in  the  type  than  in  the  antitype. 

God  designed  one  person  or  thing  in  the  Old  Testament  to  be  a  type  or 
shadow  of  things  to  come,  not  in  all  things,  but  only  in  respect  to  some 
particular  thing,  or  things;  hence  we  find  many  things  in  the  type,  that 
are  inapplicable  to  the  antitype.  The  use  of  this  canon  is  shown  in  the 
epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  in  which  the  ritual  and  sacrifices  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament are  fairly  accommodated  to  Jesus  Christ,  the  antitype,  although 
there  are  many  things  in  that  priesthood  which  do  not  accord.  Thus  the 
priest  was  to  offer  sacrifice  for  his  own  sins,  (Heb.  v,  3  )  which  is  in  no 
respect  applicable  to  Christ.    (Heb.  vii.  27.) 

3.  Frequently  there  is  more  in  the  antitype  than  in  the  type. 

The  reason  of  this  canon  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  preceding  rule:  for, 
as  no  single  type  can  express  the  life  and  particular  actions  of  Christ, 
there  is  necessarily  more  in  the  antitype  than  can  be  found  in  the  type 
itself;  so  that  one  type  must  signify  one  thing,  and  another  type  another 
thing. 

4.  In  types  and  antitype?,  an  enallage  or  change  sometimes 
takes  place ;  as  when  the  thing  prefigured  assumes  the  name 
of  the  type  or  figure  ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  when  the  type  of. 
the  thing  represented  assumes  the  name  of  the  antitype. 

Of  the  first  kind  of  enallage  we  have  examples  in  Ezek.  xxxiv.  23, 
xxxvii.  24,  25,  and  Hos.  iii.  5;  In  which  descriptions  of  Messiah's  kingdom 
he  is  styled  Uavid ;  because  as  he  was  prefigured  by  David  in  many  re- 
spects, so  he  was  to  descend  from  him. 

Of  the  second  kind  of  enallage  we  have  instances:—].  Prophetical 
Types,  in  which  the  name  of  a  person  or  thing,  properly  agreeing  with 
the  antitype,  and  for  which  the  type  was  proposed,  is  given  to  any  one. 
as  in  Isa.  vii.  3,  and  viii.  1—3.  2.  In  Historical  Types ;  as,  when  hang- 
ing was  called  in  the  Old  Testament  the  curse  of  the  Lord,  because  it  was 
made  a  type  of  Christ,  who  was  made  a  curse  for  our  sins,  as  St.  Paul 
argues  in  Gal.  iii.  13. 

5  That  we  may  not  fall  into  extremes  in  the  interpretation 
of  types,  we  must,  in  every  instance,  proceed  cautiously,  "  with 
fear  and  trembling,"  lest  we  imagine  mysteries  to  exist  where 
none  were  ever  intended. 

No  mystical  or  typical  sense,  therefore,  ought  to  be  put  upon  a  plain 
passage  of  Scripture,  the  meaning  of  which  is  obvious  and  natural ; 
unless  it  be  evident  from  some  other  part  of  Scripture  tliat  the  place  is  to 
be  understood  in  a  double  sense.  When  St  Paul  says,  (Gal.  iii.  24.  Col. 
li  17,)  that  the  law  was  a  schoolmaster  touring  men  to  Christ,  and  a 
ahadow  of  things  to  come,  we  must  instantly* acknowledge  that  tlie  cere- 
monial law  in  general,  was  a  type  of  the  mysteries  of  Uie  Gospel. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


ON  THB  niTKBPRBTATIOII  OF  flOlUPTURB  PBOPHBCISS. 

Prophecy,  or  the  prediction  of  future  events,  is  justly 
tonsidered  as  the  highest  evidence  that  can  be  given  of 


OF  SCRIFTURE  PROPHECIES.  145 

supernatural  communion  with  the  Deity.  The  force  of 
the  argument  from  prophecy,  for  proving  the  divine  in- 
spiration of  the  sacred  records,  has  already  been  exhibited  ; 
and  the  cavils  of  objectors  have  been  obviated.  (See 
pp.  37—47,  supra.)  Difficulties,  it  is  readily  admitted, 
do  exist  in  understanding  the  prophetic  writings  :  but 
these  are  either  owing  to  our  ignorance  of  history,  and  of 
the  Scriptures,  or  because  the  prophecies  themselves  are 
yet  unfulfilled.  The  latter  can  only  be  understood  when 
the  events  foretold  have  actually  been  accomplished  :  but 
the  former  class  of  difficulties  may  be  removed  in  many, 
if  not  in  all  cases  ;  and  the  knowledge,  sense,  and  mean- 
ing of  the  prophets  may,  in  a  considerable  degree,  be 
attained  by  prayer,  reading,  and  meditation,  and  by  com- 
paring Scripture  with  Scripture,  especially  with  the 
writings  of  the  New  Testament,  and  particularly  with  the 
book  of  the  Revelation.  With  this  view,  the  following 
general  rules  will  be  found  useful  in  investigating,  first, 
the  sense  and  meaning  of  the  prophecies,  and,  secondly, 
their  accomplishment. 

I.  Rules  for  ascertaining  the  sense  of  the  Prophetic 
Writings. 


1.  As  not  any  Prophecy  of  Scripture  is  of  self-interpretation 
(2  Pet.  i.  20,)  or  is  its  own  interpreter,  "  the  sense  of  the  pro- 
phecy is  to  be  sought  in  the  events  of  the  world^  and  in  the 
harmony  of  the  prophetic  writings,  rather  than  ni  the  bare 
terms  of  any  single  prediction." 

In  the  consideration  of  this  canon,  the  following  circumstances  should 
be  carefully  attended  to. 

(i.]  Consider  well  the  times  when  the  several  prophets  flourished,  in 
what  place  and  under  what  kings  they  uttered  their  predictions,  the  du- 
ration of  their  prophetic  ministry,  and  their  personal  rank  and  condition, 
and,  lastly,  whatever  can  be  known  respecting  their  life  and  transac- 
tions. 

[ii.]  As  the  prophets  treat  not  only  of  past  transactions  and  present 
occurrences,  but  also  foretell  future  events,  in  order  to  understand  them, 
we  must  diligently  consult  the  histories  of  the  following  ages,  both  sacred 
and  profane,  and  carefully  see  whether  we  can  trace  in  them  the  fulfil- 
ment  of  any  prophecy. 

[iii,]  Tlie  words  and  phrases  of  a  prophecy  must  be  explained,  where 
they  are  obscure ;  if  they  be  very  intricate,  every  single  word  should  be 
expounded  ;  and,  if  the  sense  be  involved  in  metaphorical  and  emblema- 
tic expressions,  (as  very  frequently  is  the  case,)  these  must  be  explained 
according  to  the  principles  already  considered. 

[Jv.]  Similar  prophecies  of  the  same  event  must  be  carefully  compared, 
In  order  to  elucidate  more  clearly  the  sense  of  the  sacred  predictions. 

For  instance,  after  having  ascertained  the  subject  of  the  prophet's  dis- 
course and  the  sense  of  the  words,  Isa.  lili.  5,  (He  was  wounded,  literally, 
pierced  through,  for  our  transgressions,)  may  be  compared  with  PsaL 
XXii.  16,  (.They  pierced  my  hands  and  my  feet,)  and  With  Zech.  Xii.  10, 

13 


14C 


ON  THE  INTERPRETATION 


(They  shall  look  on  me  whom  they  have  pierced.)  In  thixs  paralleling  the 
prophecies,  regard  must  be  had  to  Uie  predictions  of  former  prophets, 
"Which  are  sometimes  repeated  with  abridgment,  or  more  distinctly  ex- 
plained by  others;  and  also  to  the  predictions  of  subsequent  prophets, 
•who  sometimes  repeat,  with  greater  clearness  and  precision,  former  pro- 
phecies, which  had  been  more  obscurely  announced. 

2.  In  order  to  understand  the  prophets,  great  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  prophetic  style,  which  is  hic^hly  fii^ura- 
tive,  and  particularly  abounds  in  metaphorical  and  hyperbolical 
expressions. 

By  images  borrowed  from  the  natural  world,  the  prophets  often  under- 
stand something  in  the  world  politic.  Thus,  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  and 
heavenly  bodies,  denote  kings,  queens,  rulers,  and  persons  in  great  power ; 
and  the  increase  of  splendour  in  those  luminaries  denotes  increase  of 
prosperity,  as  in  Isa.  xxx.  26,  and  Ix.  19.  On  the  other  hand,  their  dark- 
ening, setting,  or  falling,  signifies  a  reverse  of  fortune,  or  the  entire  de- 
struction of  the  potentate  or  kingdom  to  which  they  refer. 

3.  As  the  greater  part  of  the  prophetic  writings  was  first 
composed  in  verse,  and  still  retains  much  of  the  air  and  cast  of 
the  original,  an  attention  to  the  division  of  the  lines,  and  to 
that  peculiarity  of  Hebrew  poetry  by  which  the  sense  of  one 
line  01  couplet  so  frequently  corresponds  with  another,  will 
frequently  lead  to  the  meaning  of  many  passages :  one  line  of  a 
couplet,  or  member  of  a  sentence,  being  generally  a  commen- 
tary on  the  other. 

Of  this  rule  we  have  an  example  in  Isa.  xxxiv.  6 : 
The  Lord  hath  a  sacrifice  in  Bozrah, 
And  a  great  slaughter  in  the  land  of  Idumea. 
Here,  the  metaphor  in  the  first  verse  Is  expressed  in  the  same  terms  in 
the  next :  the  sacrifice  in  Bozrah  means  the  great  slaughter  in  the  land 
of  Idumea,  of  which  Bozrah  was  the  capital. 

4.  Particular  names  are  often  put  by  the  prophets  for  more 
general  ones,  in  order  that  they  may  place  the  thing  represented, 
as  it  were,  before  tlie  eyes  of  their  hearers :  but  in  such  passa- 
ges they  are  not  to  be  understood  literally. 

Thus,  in  Joel  ill.  4,  Tyre  and  Sidort,  and  all  the  coasts  of  Palestine,  are 
put,  by  way  of  poetical  description,  for  all  the  enemies  of  the  Jews. 

5.  The  order  of  time  is  not  always  to  be  looked  for  in  the 
prophetic  writings :  for  they  frequently  (particularly  Joreiuiah 
and  Kzekiel)  resume  topics  of  which  they  have  formerly 
treated,  after  other  subjects  have  intervened,  and  again  discuss 
them. 

6.  The  prophets  often  change  both  persons  and  tenses,  some- 
times speaking  in  their  own  persons,  at  other  times  represent- 
ing God,  his  people,  or  their  enemies,  as  respectively  speaking, 
and  without  noticinii:  the  chane-e  of  persons  :  som«'times  taking 
things  pust  or  j.resent  for  things  future,  to  denote  the  certainty 
of  the  events. 

lea.  ix.  6,  llil.  throughout,  Ixlli.  throughout,  Zoch.  ix.  9,  aiid  Rev. 
xvlii.  2,  to  cite  no  other  pasaages,  may  be  adduced  as  lllUBlrations  of  this 
remark. 

7.  When  the  prophets  received  a  commipsion  to  declare  any 
thing,  the  message  is  sometimes  expressed  as  if  they  had  been 
appointed  to  do  it  themselves. 


OF  SCRIPTURE  PROPHECIES.  147 

Isa.  vi.  9,  10,  Is  merely  a  prediction  of  what  the  Jews  would  dor  for 
when  the  prophetic  declaration  was  fulfilled,  Jesus  Christ  quoted  the  pas- 
sage and  explained  its  general  sense  in  Matt.  xiii.  15. 

8.  As  symbolic  actions  and  prophetic  visions  greatly  resem- 
ble parables,  and  were  employed  for  the  same  purpose,  viz. : 
more  powerfully  to  instruct  and  engage  the  attention  of  the 

Eeople,  they  must  be  interpreted  in  the  "same  manner  as  para- 
les.    (For  which,  see  pp.  13&— 138,  supra.) 

II.  Observations  on  the  Accomplishment  of  Scripture 
Prophecies. 

A  prophecy  is  demonstrated  to  be  fulfilled,  when  we 
can  prove  from  unimpeachable  authority,  that  the  event 
has  actually  taken  place,  precisely  according  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  was  foretold. 

1.  The  same  prophecies  frequently  have  a  double  meaning, 
and  refer  to  different  events,  the  one  near,  the  other  remote ; 
the  one  temporal,  the  other  spiritual,  or  perhaps  eternal.  The 
prophets  thus  having  several  events  in  view,  their  expressions 
may  be  partly  applicable  to  one,  and  partly  to  another,  and  it 
is  not  always  easy  to  mark  the  transitions.  What  has  not  been 
fulfilled  in  the  first,  we  must  apply  to  the  second ;  and  what 
has  already  been  fulfilled,  may  often  be  considered  as  typical  of 
what  remains  to  be  accomplished. 

The  following  examples,  out  of  many  which  might  be  offer- 
ed, will  illustrate  this  rule : 

[i.]  The  second  psalm  is  primarily  an  inauguration  hymn,  composed  Dy 
David,  the  anointed  of  Jehovah,  when  crowned  with  victory,  and  placed 
triumphant  on  the  sacred  hill  of  Sion.  But,  in  Acts  iv.  25,  the  inspired 
apostles  witli  one  voice  declare  it  to  be  descriptive  of  the  exaltation  of 
the  Messiah,  and  of  the  opposition  raised  against  the  Gospel,  both  by  Jews 
and  Gentiles. 

[ii.)  Isa.  xi.  6. — What  is  here  said  of  the  wolf  dwelling  with  the  lamb, 
&c.,  is  understood  as  having  its _^rs^  completion  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah, 
when  profound  peace  was  enjoyed  after  the  troubles  caused  by  Senna, 
cherib  ;  but  its  second  and  full  completion  is  under  the  Gospel,  whose 
power  in  changing  the  hearts,  tempers,  and  lives  of  the  worst  of  men.  Is 
here  foretold  and  described  by  a  singularly  beautiful  assemblage  of  ima- 
ges. Of  this  blessed  power  there  has  in  every  age  of  Christianity  been  a 
cloud  of  witnesses. 

Thus,  it  is  evident  that  many  prophecies  must  he  taken  in  a 
double  sense,  in  order  to  understand  their  full  import ;  and  as 
this  twofold  application  of  them  was  adopted  by  our  Lord  and 
his  apostles,  it  is  a  full  authority  for  us  to  consider  and  apply 
them  in  a  similar  way. 

2.  Predictions,  denouncing  judgments  to  come,  do  not  in 
themselves  speak  the  absolute  futurity  of  the  event,  but  only 
declare  what  is  to  be  expected  by  the  persons  to  wnom  they 
are  made,  and  what  will  certainly  come  to  pass,  unless  God 
in  his  mercy  interpose  between  the  threatening  and  the 
event. 

Of  these  conditional  comminatory  predictions  we  have  examples  in  Jo- 
nali's  preaching  to  the  Ninevites  (Jonah  iii.  4 — 10,)  and  in  Isaiah's  denun> 


148  ^N  THE  SCRIFTURE  PROPHECIES. 

elation  of  death  to  Hezekiah.    (Isa.  xxxvHi.  I.)    See  also  a  almilar  ta- 
fitance  in  Jer.  xxxviii.  14—23. 

III.  Observations  on  the  accomplishment  of  Prophe- 
cies concerning  the  Messiah  in  particular. 

1.  Jesus  Christ  being  the  great  subject  and  end  of  Scripture 
revelation,  we  ought  every  where  to  search  for  prophecies 
concerning  him. 

We  have  the  united  testimony  of  Christ  (John  v.  39.  Luke  xiiv.  25—27. 
44,)  and  of  an  inspired  apostle,  (Acts  x.  43,)  that  he  is  the  subject  of 
Scripture  prophecy.  Wliatever  therefore  is  emphatically  and  cha- 
racteristically spoken  of  some  other  person,  not  called  by  his  own  name, 
in  the  psalms  or  prophetical  books,  so  that  each  predicate  can  be  fully 
demonstrated  in  no  single  subject  of  that  or  any  other  time,  must  be  taken 
and  said  of  the  Messiah.  Psalm  xxii.  and  Isa.  liii.  may  be  adduced  as  an 
illustration  of  this  rule. 

2.  The  interpretation  of  the  word  o^  prophecy,  made  by 
Jesus  Christ  himself,  and  by  his  inspired  apostles,  is  a  nile  and 
key  by  which  to  interoret  correctly  the  prophecies  cited  or  al- 
luded to  by  them. 

The  prophecy  (in  Isa.  vili.  14,)  that  the  Messiah  would  prove  a  stone  of 
stumbling  euid  a  rock  of  offence,  is  more  plainly  repealed  by  Simeon» 
(Luke  ii.  34,)  and  is  shown  to  have  been  fulfilled  by  St.  Paul  (Rom.  ix.  32, 
33,)  and  by  St.  Peter,  (1  Pet.  ii.  8;)  and  the  sixteenth  psalm  is  expressly 
applied  to  Jesus  Christ  by  the  latter  of  these  apostles.     (Acts  ii.  25 — 31.) 

3.  Where  the  prophets  describe  a  golden  age  of  felicity,  they 
clearly  foretell  Gospel  times. 

Many  passages  might  be  adduced  from  the  prophetic  writings  in  con- 
firmation of  this  rule.  It  will  however  suffice  to  adduce  two  instances 
from  Isaiah,  ch.  ix.  2 — 7,  and  xi.  I — 9.  In  the  former  of  these  passages, 
the  peaceful  kingdom  of  the  Messiah  is  set  forth,  its  extent  mid  duration  ,- 
and  in  the  latter,  the  singular  peace  and  happiness  which  should  then 
prevail,  are  delineated  in  imagery  of  unequalled  beauty  and  energy. 

4.  Things,  foretold  as  universally  or  indefinitely  to  come  to 
pass  under  the  Gospel,  are  not  to  be  understood,— as  they  respect 
the  duty,— of  all  persons ;  but,— as  they  respect  the  event, — 
only  of  God's  people. 

The  highly  figurative  expressions  in  Isa.  ii.  4,  xl.  6,  and  Ixv.  25,  are  to 
"be  understood  of  the  nature,  design,  and  tendency  of  the  Gospel,  and  what 
is  the  duty  of  all  its  professors,  and  what  would  actually  take  place  in 
the  Christian  world,  if  all  who  profess  the  Christian  doctrine  did  sincerely 
and  cordially  obey  its  dictates. 

5.  As  the  ancient  prophecies  concernine-  the  Messiah  are  of 
two  kinds,  some  of  them  relating  to  his  first  coming  to  suffer, 
while  the  rest  of  them  concern  his  second  coming  to  advance 
his  kingdom,  and  restore  the  Jews ;  in  all  these  i)rophecies, 
we  must  carefully  distin;»uiKh  between  his  first  coming  in  hu- 
miliation to  accomplish  his  mediatorial  work  on  the  cross,  and 
his  second  coming  in  glory  to  judgment. 

In  studying  the  prophet! :  writings,  the  two  following 
cautions  should  uniformly  be  kept  in  view,  viz. : 

1.  That  wc  do  not  apply  passing  events,  as  actually 
fulfilling  particular  prophecies. 


ON  DOCTRINAL  INTERPRETATION.  I49 

2.  That  we  do  not  curiously  pry  beyond  what  is  ex- 
pressly written,  or  describe,  as  fulfilled,  prophecies  which 
are  yet  future.  What  the  Bible  hath  declared,  that  we 
may  without  hesitation  declare:  beyond  this  all  is  mere 
vague  conjecture. 


CHAPTER  V 

ON  THE  DOCTRINAL,  MORAL,  AND  PRACTICAL  INTBRPRETATION  OP  SCRaTTIRB. 

Section  I. — On  the  Doctrinal  Interpretation  of  Scripture, 

As  the  Holy  Scriptures  contain  the  revealed  will  of 
God  to  man,  they  not  only  offer  to  our  attention  the  most 
interesting  histories  and  characters  for  our  instruction  by 
example,  and  the  most  sublime  prophecies  for  the  confir- 
mation of  our  faith,  but  they  likewise  present,  to  our  se- 
rious study,  doctrinal  truths  of  the  utmost  importance. 
Some  of  these  occur  in  the  historical,  poetical,  and  pro- 
phetical parts  of  the  Bible :  but  they*  are  chiefly  to  be 
found  in  the  apostolic  epistles,  which,  though  originally 
desiijned  for  the  edification  of  particular  Christian  churches 
or  individuals,  are  nevertheless  of  general  application^ 
and  designed  for  the  guidance  of  the  universal  church 
in  every  age.  For  many  of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of 
Christianity  are  more  copiously  treated  in  the  epistles, 
which  are  not  so  particularly  explained  in  the  gospels  : 
and  as  the  authors  of  the  several  epistles,  wrote  under  the 
same  divine  inspiration  as  the  evangelists,  the  epistles  and 
gospels  must  be  taken  together,  to  complete  the  rule  of 
Christian  faith.  The  doctrinal  interpretation,  therefore, 
of  the  sacred  writings  is  of  paramount  consequence :  as 
by  this  means  we  are  enabled  to  acquire  a  correct  and 
saving  knowledge  of  the  will  of  God  concerning  us.  In 
the  prosecution  of  this  important  branch  of  sacred  litera- 
ture, the  following  observations  are  offered  to  the  attention 
of  the  student : 

1.  The  meaning  of  the  sacred  writings  is  not  to  be  deter- 
mined acctrf  ding  to  modern  notions  and  systems :  but  we  must 
endeavour  to  carry  ourselves  back  to  the  very  times  and  places 
in  which  they  were  written,  and  realize  the  ideas  and  modes 
of  thinking  of  the  sacred  writers. 
13* 


150 


ON  THE  DOCTRINAL  INTERPRETATION 


This  rule  is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  understanding  the  Scriptujea, 
but  is  loo  commonly  neglected  by  commentators  and  expositors,  who, 
when  applying  themselves  to  theexplanalionof  the  sacred  writings,  have 
a  preconceived  system  of  doctrine,  which  they  seek  in  the  Bible,  and  to 
which  they  refer  every  passage  of  Scripture.  Thus  they  rather  drawthe 
Scriptures  to  their  system  of  doctrine,  than  bring  their  doctrines  to  the 
standard  of  Scripture;  a  mode  of  interpretation  whicli  is  altogether  un- 
just, and  utterly  useless  in  the  attainment  of  truth.  The  only  way  by 
which  to  understand  the  meaning  of  the  sacred  writers,  and  to  distinguisli 
between  true  and  false  docuines,  is,  to  lay  aside  all  preconceived  modern 
notions  and  systems,  and  to  carry  ourselves  back  to  the  very  times  and 
places  in  which  the  prophets  and  apostles  wrote.  In  perusing  the  Bible, 
therefore,  this  rule  must  be  most  carefully  attended  to.  It  is  only  an  un- 
biassed mind  that  can  attain  the  true  and  genuine  sense  of  Scripture. 

2.  In  order  to  understand  any  doctrinal  book  or  passage  of 
Scripture,  we  must  attend  to  the  controversies  which  were 
agitated  at  that  time,  and  to  which  the  sacred  writers  allude: 
for  a  key  to  the  apostolic  epistles  is  not  to  be  sought  in  the 
modern  controversies  that  divide  Christians,  and  which  were 
not  only  unknown  but,  also,  were  not  in  existence  at  that 
time. 

The  controversies,  which  were  discussed  in  the  age  of  the  apostles,  are 
to  be  ascertained,  partly  from  their  writings,  partly  from  the  existing 
monuments  of  tl\e  primitive  Christians,  and  likewise  from  some  passages 
In  the  writings  of  the  Rabbins.  The  most  important  passages  of  lliis  kind 
are  to  be  found  in  almost  all  the  larger  commentators. 

3.  The  doctrinal  books  of  Scripture,  for  instance,  the  Epis- 
tles, are  not  to  be  perused  in  detached  portions  or  sections ; 
but  they  should  be  read  through  at  once,  with  a  close  attention 
to  the  scope  and  tenor  of  the  discourse,  regardless  of  the  divi- 
sions into  chapters  and  verses,  precisely  in  the  same  manner  in 
whicli  we  would  peruse  the  letters  of  Cicero,  Pliny,  or  other 
ancient  writers. 

Want  of  attention  to  the  general  scope  and  design  of  the  doctrinal  parts 
of  Scripture,  particularly  of  the  epistles,  has  been  the  source  of  many  and 
great  errors:  the  reading,  however,  which  is  here  recommended,  sliouid 
not  be  cursory  or  casual,  but  frequent  and  diligent ;  aixl  Uie  Epistles  should 
be  repeatedly  perused,  until  we  become  intimately  acquainted  with  their 
contents.     On  the  investigation  of  the  Scope,  sec  p.  1 16,  supra. 

4.  Where  any  doctrine  is  to  be  deduced  from  the  Scriptures, 
it  will  be  collected  better,  and  with  more  precision,  from  those 
places  in  which  it  is  professedly  discussed,  than  from  those  in 
which  it  is  noticed  only  incidentally,  or  by  w^ay  of  inference. 

For  instance,  in  the  EpisUes  to  Uie  Romans  and  Galatiaivs  the  doctrine 
of  justification  by  faith  is  fully  treated;  and  in  those  to  the  Ephesians 
and  Colossians,  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles  and  the  abrogaUon  of  the 
ceremonial  law  are  particularly  illustrated.  These  must  therefore  be 
diligently  compared  together,  in  order  to  deduce  those  doctrines  conectly. 

5.  Distinguish  figurative  expressions  from  such  as  are  proper 
and  literal ;  and  when  easy  and  natural  interpretations  offer 
themselves,  avoid  all  those  interpretations  which  deduce  asto- 
nishing aiicl  incredible  doctrines. 

6.  It  is  of  great  importance  to  the  understanding  of  the  doc- 
trinal books  of  the  New  Testament,  to  attend  to  and  dis- 
tinctly note  the  transitions  of  |)ersons  which  frequently  occur, 
especially  iu  Saint  Paul's  Epistles. 


OF  THE  SCRIPTURES.  151 

The  pronouns  /,  We,  and  You,  are  used  by  the  apostles  in  such  a  variety 
of  applications,  that  the  understanding  of  their  true  meaiiing  is  often  a 
key  to  many  difficult  passages.  Thus,  by  the  pronoun  /,  Saint  Paul  some- 
times means  himself,  sometimes  any  Christian  ;  sometimes  a  Jew  ;  and 
sometimes  any  man,  &c.  To  discover  these  transitions  requires  great  at- 
tention to  the  apostle's  scope  and  argument ;  and  yet,  if  it  be  neglected  or 
overlooked,  it  -will  cause  tlie  reader  greatly  to  mistake  and  misunderstand 
his  meaning,  and  wiil  also  render  the  sense  veiy  perplexed.  Mr.  Locke, 
and  Dr.  Macknight,  in  their  elaborate  works  on  the  Epistles,  are  particu- 
larly  viseful  in  pointing  out  these  various  transitions  of  persons  and  sub- 
jects. 

7.  No  article  of  faith  can  be  established  from  metaphors, 
parables,  or  single  obscure  and  figurative  texts. 

Instead  of  deriving  our  knowledge  of  Christianity  from  parables  and 
figurative  passages,  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel  is  necessary,  in  order  to  be  capable  of  interpreting  them.  The  beau- 
tiful parable  of  the  man  who  fell  among  thieves,  (Luke  x.  30—37.)  is  evi- 
dently intended  to  influence  the  Jews  to  be  benevolent  and  kind  like  the 
good  Samaritan,  and  nothing  more.  And  yet,  regardless  of  every  princi- 
ple of  sound  interpretation,  that  parable  has  by  some  writers  been  con- 
sidered as  a  representation  of  Adam's  fall,  and  of  man's  recovery,  through 
the  interposition  and  love  of  Jesus  Christ ! 


Section  n,— On  the  Moral  Interpretation  of  Scripture. 

The  moral  Parts  of  Scripture  are  replete  with  the  most 
important  instructions  for  the  government  of  life.  They 
are  to  be  interpreted  precisely  in  the  same  manner  as  all 
other  moral  writings  ;  regard  being  had  to  the  peculiar 
circumstances  of  the  sacred  writers,  viz. :  the  age  in 
which  they  wrote,  the  nation  to  which  they  belonged,  their 
style,  genius,  &c.  In  the  examination  of  the  moral  parts 
of  Scripture,  the  following  more  particular  rules  will  be 
found  us&ful. 

1.  Moral  propositions  or  discourses  are  not  to  be  urged  too 
far,  but  must  be  understood  with  a  certain  degree  of  latitude, 
and  with  various  limitations. 

For  want  of  attending  to  this  canon,  how  many  moral  truths  have 
been  pushed  to  an  extent,  which  causes  them  altogether  to  fail  of  the  ef- 
fect they  were  designed  to  produce !  It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  universal 
propositions  may  be  offered  :  such  are  frequent  in  the  Scriptures  as  well 
as  in  profane  writers,  and  also  in  common  life ;  but  it  is  in  explaining  the 
ex-pressions  by  which  they  are  conveyed,  that  just  limits  ought  to  be  ap- 
plied, to  prevent  them  from  being  urged  too  far.  The  nature  of  thethmg, 
and  various  other  circumstances,  will  always  afford  a  criterion  by  which 
to  understand  moral  propositions  with  the  requisite  limitations. 

2.  Principals  include  their  accessaries,  that  is.  whatever  ap- 
proaches or  comes  near  to  them,  or  has  any  tendency  to  them. 

Thus,  where  any  sin  is  forbidden,  we  must  be  careful  not  only  to  avoid 
it,  but  also  everj-  thing  of  a  similar  nature,  and  whatever  may  prove  an 
occasion  of  it,  or  imply  our  consent  to  it  in  others  :  and  we  must  endea- 
vour to  dissuade  or  restrain  others  from  it.  Compare  Matt.  v.  21 — 31. 
1  Thess.  V.  22.    Jude  23,     Ephes,  v.  11.     1  Cor.  viii.  13.    Levit.  xix.  17. 


152  O*'^'  THE  INTERPRETATION  OF 

James  v.  19,  20.  So,  where  any  duty  is  enjoined,  all  means  and  faciU* 
lies,  enabling  either  ourselves  or  olln-rs  to  discharge  it,  according  to  our 
respective  places,  capacities,  or  opporluiiities,  are  likewise  enjoined. 

3.  Negatives  include  affirmatives,  and  affirmatives  include 
nejjatives :  in  other  words,  where  any  duty  is  enjoined,  the 
contrary  sin  is  forbidden  ;  and  where  any  sin  is  forbidden,  the 
contrary  duty  is  enjoined. 

Thus,  in  Deul.  vi.  13,  where  we  are  commanded  to  serve  God,  we  ere 
forbidden  to  serve  any  other.  Therefore,  in  Matt.  iv.  10,  it  is  said,  him 
only  shall  thou  serve. 

4.  Negatives  are  binding  at  all  times,  but  not  affirmatives : 
that  is,  we  must  never  do  that  which  is  forbidden,  though  good 
may  ultimately  come  from  it.  (Kom.  iii.  8.)  VVe  must  not 
speak  wickedly  for  God.    (Job  xiii.  7.) 

5.  When  an  action  is  either  required  or  commended,  or  any 
promise  is  annexed  to  its  performance  ;  such  action  is  supposed 
to  be  done  from  proper  motives  and  in  a  proper  manner. 

The  giving  of  alms  may  be  mentioned  as  an  instance;  which,  if  done 
from  ostentatious  motives,  we  are  assured,  is  displeasing  in  Uie  sight  of 
God.     Compare  Malt.  vi.  1. — 4. 

6.  When  the  favour  of  God,  or  salvation,  is  promised  to  any 
deed  or  duty,  all  the  other  duties  of  religion  are  supposed  to  be 
rightly  performed. 

7.  When  a  certain  state  or  condition  is  pronounced  blessed, 
or  any  promise  is  annexed  to  it,  a  suitable  disposition  of  mind 
is  sujjpo.sed  to  prevail. 

Thus,  when  the  poor  or  afflicted  are  pronounced  to  be  blessed,  it  is  be- 
cause such  persons,  being  poor  and  afflicted,  are  free  from  the  sins  usually 
attendant  on  unsanctified  prosperity,  and  because  they  are,  on  the  con- 
trary, more  humble  and  more  obedient  to  God.  If,  however,  they  be  not 
the  characters  described,  (as  unquestionably  there  are  many  to  whom  the 
characters  do  not  apply,)  the  promise  in  that  case  does  not  belong  to  them. 
Vice  versa,  when  any  slate  is  pronounced  to  be  wretched,  it  is  on  accoimt 
of  the  sins  or  vices  which  generally  attend  it. 

8.  Some  precepts  of  moral  prudence  are  given  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, which  nevertheless  admit  of  exceptions,  on  account  of 
some  duties  of  benevolence  or  piety  that  ought  to  prepon- 
derate. 

We  may  illustrate  Uiis  rule  by  the  often- repeated  counsels  of  Solomon 
respecting  becoming  surety  for  another.  (See  Prov.  vi.  1,  2,  xt.  15,  xvii. 
18,  and  xx.  16.)  In  the^e  passages  he  does  not  condemn  suretyship,  which, 
In  many  cades,  is  not  only  lawful,  but,  in  same  instances,  even  an  act  of 
justice,  prudence,  and  charity  ;  but  Solomon  forbids  his  disciple  to  become 
surety  rns/ily,  without  considering  for  whom,  or  how  far  he  binds  him- 
Btli;  or  how  he  could  discharge  the  debt,  If  Lccasion  should  require  it. 


Sbction  IIF.— On  the  Interpretation  of  the  Promises  and  Threatenlngs  of 
Scripture. 

1.   Distinction  between  Promises  and  Thrcatcnings, 
A  jironii.'-e,  in  the  ^Scriptural  sense  of  the  term,  is  a 


PROMISES  OF  SCRIPTURE.  153 

declaration  or  assurance  of  the  divine  will,  in  which  God 
signifies  what  particular  blessings  or  good  things  he  will 
freely  bestow,  as  well  as  the  evils  which  he  will  remove. 
The  promises,  therefore,  differ  from  the  threatenings  of 
God,  inasmuch  as  the  former  are  declarations  concerning 
good,  while  the  latter  are  denunciations  of  evil  only  :  at 
the  same  time  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  promises  seem  to 
include  threats,  because,  being  in  their  very  nature  condi- 
tional,  they  imply  the  bestowment  of  the  blessing  pro- 
mised, only  on  the  condition  being  performed,  which 
blessing  is  tacitly  threatened  to  be  withheld  on  non-com- 
pliance with  such  condition.  Further,  promises  differ 
from  the  commands  of  God,  because  the  latter  are  signifi- 
cations of  the  divine  will  concerning  a  duty  enjoined  to 
be  performed,  while  promises  relate  to  mercy  to  be 
received. 

There  are  four  classes  of  promises  mentioned  in  the 
Scriptures,  particularly  in  the  New  Testament ;  viz.  : 
1.  Promises  relating  to  the  Messiah  ;  2.  Promisees  rela- 
ting to  the  church  ;  3.  Promises  of  blessings,  both  tem- 
poral and  spiritual,  to  the  pious  ;  and,  4.  Promises 
encouraging  to  the  exercise  of  the  several  graces  and 
duties  that  compose  the  Christian  character.  The  two 
first  of  these  classes,  indeed,  are  many  of  them  predictions 
as  well  as  promises  ;  consequently  the  same  observations 
will  apply  to  them,  as  are  stated  for  the  interpretation  of 
Scripture  prophecies  :  but  in  regard  to  those  promises 
which  are  directed  to  particular  persons,  or  to  the  per- 
formance of  particular  duties,  the  following  remarks  are 
offered  to  the  attention  of  the  reader. 

1.  "  We  must  receive  God's  promises  in  such  wise  as  they 
be  generally  set  forth  in  the  Holy  Scripture."    (Art.  xvii.) 

To  us  the  promises  of  God  are  general  and  conditional :  if,  therefore, 
they  be  not  fulfilled  towards  us,  we  may  rest  assured  that  the  fault  docs 
not  rest  with  Him,  "  who  cannot  lie,"  but  with  ourselves,  who  have  fail- 
ed in  complying  with  the  conditions^  either  tacitly,  or  expressly,  annexed 
to  tliem. 

2.  Such  promises  as  were  made  in  one  case,  may  be  applied 
in  other  cases  of  the  same  nature,  consistently  with  the  analogy 
of  faith. 

It  is  in  promises  as  in  commands;  they  do  not  exclusively  concern 
those  to  -whom  they  were  first  made  ;  but  being  inserted  in  the  Scriptures, 
they  are  made  of  public  benefit:  for,  "whatsoever  things  were  written 
aforetime,  were  written  for  our  use  ;  that  we,  through  patience,  and  com- 
fort of  the  Scriptures,  might  have  hope."  (Rom.  iv.  4.)    Thus,  what  was 


154  ^^'  '^"^  PRACTICAL 

spoken  to  Joshua,  (ch.  i.  5,)  on  his  going  up  against  the  Canaanltes,  lest 

he  isliould  be  discouraged  in  that  enterprit^e,  is  ai)j)lied  by  8l.  Paul  to  the 
believing  Hebiews,  (Ileb.  xiii.  5,)  as  a  remedy  against  covelousness,  or  in- 
ordinate cares  concerning  the  things  of  this  life ;  it  being  a  very  compre- 
hensive promise,  that  God  will  never  fail  us,  nor  forsake  us.  Bui  if  we 
were  to  apply  the  promises  contained  in  Psal.  xciv.  14,  and  Jer.  xxxii.  40, 
and  John  x.  28,  as  promises  of  indefectible  grace,  to  believers,  we  should 
violate  every  rule  of  sober  interpretation,  as  well  as  the  analogy  of  faith. 

3    God  has  suited  his  promises  to  his  precepts. 

Hy  his  precepts  we  see  what  is  our  duty,  and  what  should  be  the  scope 
of  uicr  endeavours  ;  and  by  his  promises  we  see  what  is  our  innhilitij,, 
what  should  be  the  matter,  or  object  of  our  prayers,  and  where  we  may 
be  supplied  with  that  grace  which  will  enable  us  to  discharge  our  duty. 
Compare  Deut.  x.  16,  with  Deut.  xxx.  6.  Eccles.  xii.  13,  with  Jer.  xxxii. 
40.     Ezek.  xviii.  31,  with  Ezek.  xxxvi.  37,  and  Rom.  vi.  12,  with  v.  14. 

4.  Where  any  thing  is  promised  in  case  of  obedience,  the 
tlireatening  of  the  contrary  is  implied  in  case  of  disobedience: 
and  where  there  is  a  threatening  of  any  thing  in  case  of  disobe- 
dience, a  promise  of  the  contrary  is  implied,  upon  condition  of 
obedience. 

In  illustration  of  this  remark,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  refer  to.  and  com- 
pare Exod.  XX.  7,  Willi  Psal.  xv.  1—4,  and  xxiv.  3,  4,  and  Exod.  xx.  12,  with 
Prov.  xxx.  17. 


Section  IV,— On  the  Practical  Reading  of  Scripture. 

The  sense  of  Scripture  having  been  explained  and  as- 
certained, it  only  remains  that  we  apply  it  to  purposes  of 
practical  utility ;  which  may  be  effected  either  by  de- 
ducing inferences  from  texts,  or  by  practically  applying 
the  Scriptures  to  our  personal  edification  and  salvation  : 
for,  if  serious  contemplation  of  the  Scriptures  and  prac- 
tice  be  united  together,  our  real  knowledge  of  the  Bible 
must  necessarily  be  increased,  and  will  be  rendered,  pro- 
gressively, more  delightful.  This  practical  reading  may 
be  prosecuted  by  every  one,  with  advantage  :  for  the  ap- 
plication of  Scripture,  which  it  recommends,  is  connected 
with  our  highest  interest  and  happiness. 

The  simplest  practical  application  of  the  word  of  God, 
will,  unquestionably,  prove  the  most  beneficial ;  provided 
it  be  conducted  with  a  due  regard  to  those  moral  qualifi- 
cations which  have  already  been  stated  and  enforced,  as 
necessary  to  the  right  understanding  of  the  Scriptures. 
Should,  however,  any  hints  be  required,  the  following 
may,  perhaps,  be  consulted  with  advantage. 

1.  In  reading  the  Scriptures,  then,  with  a  view  to  personal 
apF)lication,  we  should  be  careful  that  it  be  done  with  a  pure 
intention. 


READING  OF  SCRIPTURE.  155 

He,  however,  who  peruses  the  sacred  volume,  merely  for  th#  purpose 
of  amusing  himself  with  the  histories  it  contains,  or  of  "beguiling  time,  or 
to  tranquillize  his  conscience  by  the  discharge  of  a  mere  external  duty,  is 
deficient  in  the  motive  with  which  he  performs  that  duty,  and  cannot  ex- 
pect to  derive  from  it  either  advantage,  or  comfort,  amid  the  trials  of  Ufe. 
Neither  will  it  suffice  to  read  the  Scriptures,  with  the  mere  design  of  be- 
coming intimately  acquainted  with  sacred  truths,  unless  such  reading  be 
accompanied  with  a  desire,  that,  through  them,  he  may  be  convinced  of 
his  self-love,  ambition,  or  other  faults,  to  which  he  may  be  peculiarly  ex- 
posed ;  and  that  by  the  assistance  of  divine  grace,  he  may  be  enabled  to 
eradicate  them  from  his  mind. 

2.  In  reading  the  Scriptures  for  this  purpose,  it  will  be  advi- 
sable to  select  some  appropriate  lessons  from  its  most  useful 
parts ;  not  being  particularly  solicitous  about  the  exact  con- 
nexion, or  other  critical  niceties  that  may  occur,  (though  at 
other  times,  as  ability  and  opportunity  offer,  these  are  highly 
proper  objects  of  inquiry,)  bat  simply  considering  them  In  a 
devotional,  or  practical  view. 

After  ascertaining,  therefore,  the  plain  and  obvious  meaning  of  the  les- 
son under  examination,  we  should  first  consider  the  present  state  of  our 
minds,  and  carefully  compare  it  with  the  passage  in  question :  next,  we 
should  inquire  into  the  causes  of  those  faults,  which  such  perusal  may 
have  disclosed  to  us ;  and  should  then  look  around  for  suitable  remedies 
to  correct  the  faults  we  have  thus  discovered. 

3.  In  every  practical  reading,  and  application  of  the  Scrip- 
tures to  ourselves,  our  attention  should  be  fixed  on  Jesus 
Christ,  both  as  ?t.gift  to  be  received  by  faith,  for  salvation,  and 
also  as  an  exemplar,  to  be  copied  and  imitated  in  our  lives. 

We  are  not,  however,  to  imitate  him  in  all  things.  Some  things  he  did 
by  his  divine  power,  and  in  those  we  cannot  imitate  him  :  other  things  he 
performed  by  his  sovereign  authority,  in  those  we  must  not  imitate  him  : 
other  things  also  he  performed  by  virtue  of  his  office  as  a  Mediator  ;  and 
in  these,  we  may  not,  we  cannot  follow  him.  But,  in  his  early  piety.,  his 
obedience  to  his  reputed  earthly  parents — his  unwearied  diligence  in 
doing  good,  his  humility,  his  unblameable  conduct,  his  self  denial,  his  con- 
tentment under  low  circumstances,  his  frequency  in  private  prayer,  his 
affectionate  thankfulness,  his  compassion  to  the  wretched,  his  holy  and 
edifying  discourse,  his  free  conversation,  his  patience,  his  readiness  to  for- 
give injuries,  his  sorrow  for  the  sins  of  others,  his  zeal  for  the  worship  of 
God,  his  glorifying  his  heavenly  Father,  his  impartiality  in  administering 
reproof;  his  universal  obedience,  and  his  love  and  practice  of  holiness— in 
ali  these  instairces,  Jesus  Christ  is  the  most  perfect  pattern  for  our  imi- 
tation. • 

4.  We  should  carefully  distinguish  between  what  the  Scrip- 
ture itself  says,  and  what  is  only  said  in  the  Scripture,  and  also, 
the  times,  places,  and  persons,  when,  where,  and  by  whom  any 
thing  is  recorded  as  having  been  said  or  done. 

In  Mai.  iii.  !4,  we  meet  with  the  following  words:  "It  is  in  vain  to 
serve  God ;  and  what  profit  is  it  that  we  have  kept  his  ordinance 7"  And 
in  1  Cor.  xv.  32,  we  meet  with  this  maxim  of  profane  men — "  Let  us  eat 
and  drink,  for  to-morrow  we  die."  But,  when  we  read  these,  and  similar 
passages,  we  must  attend  to  the  characters  introduced,  and  remember 
that  the  persons  who  spoke  thus  were  wicked  men.  Even  those,  whose 
piety  is  commended  in  the  sacred  volume,  did  not  always  act  in  strict 
conformity  to  it.  Thus,  when  David  vowed  that  he  would  utterly  destroy 
Nabal's  house,  we  must  conclude  that  he  sinned  in  making  that  vow. 
and  the  discourses  of  Job's  friends,  though  in  themselves  extremely  beau* 


156  ON  THE  PRACTICAL 

tiful  and  instructive,  are  not,  in  every  respect,  to  be  approved  ;  for  we  wre 
informed  by  llie  sacred  historian,  liiat  God  was  wrotli  wilii  tliem,  because 
they  liad  not  spoken  of  liim  the  thing  lliat  was  light  (Job  xhl.  7.) 

5.  As  every  good  example,  recorded  in  the  Scriptures,  has 
the  force  of  a  rule,  so  when  we  read  therein  of  the  failing's, 
as  well  as  of  the  sinful  actions  of  men,  we  may  see  what  is  in 
our  own  nature :  for  there  are  in  us  the  seeds  of  the  same  sin, 
and  similar  tendencies  to  its  commission,  which  would  bring 
forth  similar  fruits,  were  it  not  for  the  preventing  and  renew- 
ing grace  of  God.  And  as  many  of  the  persons,  whose  faults 
are  related  in  the  volume  of  inspu'ation,  were  men  of  infinitely 
more  elevated  piety  than  ourselves,  we  should  learn  from  them 
not  only  to  "  be  not  high-minded,  fmtfear^"  (Rom.  xi.  20 ;)  but 
further,  to  avoid  being  rash  in  censuring  the  conduct  of  others. 

The  occasio7is  of  their  declensions  are  likewisse  deserving  of  our  atten- 
tion, as  well  as  the  temptations  to  which  they  were  exposed  ;  and  whether 
they  did  not  neglect  to  watch  over  their  thoughts,  words,  and  actions,  or 
trust  too  much  to  their  own  strength  (as  in  the  case  of  Peter's  denial  of 
Christ ;)  what  were  the  means  that  led  to  their  penitence  and  recovery, 
and  how  they  demeaned  themselves  after  they  liad  repented.  By  a  due 
observation,  therefore,  of  their  words  and  actions,  and  of  the  temper  of 
their  minds,  so  far  as  this  is  manifested  by  words  and  actions,  we  shall 
be  belter  enabled  to  judge  of  our  real  progress  in  religious  knowledge, 
than  by  those  characters  which  are  given  of  holy  men,  in  the  Scriptures, 
without  such  observation  of  the  tenor  of  their  lives,  and  the  frame  of 
their  minds. 

6.  In  reading  the  promises  and  threatenings,  the  exhortations 
and  admonitions,  and  other  parts  of  Scripture,  we  should  ap- 
ply them  to  ourselves,  in  such  a  manner  as  if  they  had  been 
personally  addressed  to  us. 

For  instance,  are  we  reading  any  of  the  prophetic  Sermons'?  Let  us  so 
read  and  consider  them,  and,  as  it  were,  identify  ourselves  with  the  times 
and  persons,  when,  andtowhom  such  prophetic  discourses  were  deliver- 
ed, as  if  they  were  our  fellow-countrymen,  fellow-citizens,  &c.,  whom 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  other  prophets  rebuke,  in  some  chaptera, 
while  in  others  they  labour  to  convince  them  of  their  sinful  ways,  and  to 
convert  them,  or  in  the  event  of  their  conlinumg  disobedient,  denounce 
the  divine  judgments  against  them.  So,  in  all  the  precepts  of  Christian 
virtue,  recorded  in  Matt.  v.  vi.  and  vii,  we  should  consider  ourselves  to  bo 
as  nearly  and  particularly  concerned,  as  if  we  had  personally  heard 
them  delivered  by  Jesus  Christ  on  the  Mount.  Independently,  therefore, 
of  the  light  which  will  thus  be  thrown  upon  the  prophetic,  or  other  por- 
tions of  Scripture,  much  practical  instruction  will  be  elTiciently  obtained  ; 
for,  by  this  mode  of  reading  the  Scriptures,  the  promises  addressed  to 
oUiers,  will  encourage  us  ;  the  denunciations  against  others,  will  deter  us 
from  the  commis.slon  of  sin  ;  the  exhortations  delivered  to  others,  will  ex- 
cite U8  to  the  diligent  performance  of  our  duty,  and,  finally,  admonitions 
to  otherg  will  make  us  walk  circumspeclly. 

7.  The  words  of  the  passage  selected  for  our  private  read- 
ing, after  its  import  has  been  a.scertained,  may  beneficially  be 
summed  up,  or  comprised  in  very  brief  prayers  or  ejaculations. 

The  advantage  resulting  from  this  simple  method  has  been  proved  by 
many,  who  have  recommended  It.  If  we  pray  over  the  substance  of 
Bcriplure,  with  our  HIble  before  ua,  it  may  Impre.'^s  the  memory  and  heart 
the  more  deeply.  .Should  any  references  to  the  St-riptures  be  required,  In 
confirmation  of  this  statement,  we  would  briefly  notice,  that  the  follow- 
ing pabsages,  among  many  oUiers  that  might  be  cited,  will,  by  addressing 


READING  OF  SCRIPTURE.  157 

them  to  God,  and,  by  a  slight  change  also  in  the  person,  become  admira- 
ble petitions  for  divine  teaching;  viz.  :  Col.  i.  9,  10.  Eph,  i.  17,  18,  19. 
1  Pet.  ii.  1,  2.  The  hundred  and  nineteenth  Psalm  contains  numerous 
similar  passages. 

8.  In  the  practical  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  all  things  are 
not  to  be  applied  at  once,  but  gradually  and  successively ;  and 
this  application  must  be  made,  not  so  much  with  the  view  of 
supplying  us  with  materials  for  talking,  as  with  matter  for 
practice. 

Finally,  this  practical  reading  ana  application  must  be 
diligently  continued  through  life  ;  and  wc  may,  with  the 
assistance  of  divine  grace,  reasonably  hope  for  success  in 
it,  if  to  reading  we  add  constant  prayer^  and  medita- 
tion on  what  we  have  read.  With  these  we  are  further  to 
conjoin  a  perpetual  comparison  of  the  sacred  writings ; 
daily  observation  of  what  takes  place  in  ourselves,  as  well 
as  what  we  learn  from  the  experience  of  others  ;  a  strict 
and  vigilant  self-examination  ;  together  with  frequent  con- 
versation with  men  of  learning  and  piety,  who  have  made 
greater  progress  in  saving  knowledge  ;  and  lastly,  the 
diligent  cultivation  of  internal  peace. 

Other  observations  might  be  offered  ;  but  the  preceding 
hints,  if  duly  considered  and  acted  upon,  will  make  us 
"  neither 'barren  nor  unfruitful  in  the  knowledge  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ."  (2  Pet.  i.  8.)  And  if,  to  some  of  his 
readers,  the  author  should  appear  to  have  dilated  too  much 
on  so  obvious  a  topic,  its  importance  must  be  his  apology. 
Whatever  relates  to  the  confirmation  of  our  faith,  the  im- 
provement of  our  morals,  or  the  elevation  of  our  affec- 
tions, ought  not  to  be  treated  lightly  or  with  indifference. 


14 


158 


PART  III. 

A  COMPENDIUM  OF  BIBLICAL  GEOGRAPHY  AND  ANTIQUITIES. 


BOOK  I.— 1.  A  SKETCH  OF  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


CHAPTER  I. 

HISTORICAL   GEOGRAPHY   OF   THE   HOLY  LAND 


Crotlo  at  Nazareth,  said  to  hate  been  the  House  of  Joseph  and  Mary. 

This  country  lias,  in  difToront  ages,  been  called  by  va- 
rious Names,  which  iiave  been  derived  either  from  its  in- 
habitants, or  from  the  extraordinary  circumstances  attach- 
ed to  it.  Thus  in  Jer.  iv.  20,  it  is  termed  generally  the 
la7id:  and  hence,  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
tlie   original  word,    which   is  sometimes   rendered   earthf 


GEOGllAPIIV  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND.  I59 

landj  or  country,  is  by  tlie  context,  in  many  places,  deter- 
mined to  mean  the  promised  land  of  Israel ;  as  in  Josh, 
ii.  3,  Matt.  v.  5,  and  Luke  iv.  25.  But  the  country  oc- 
cupied by  the  Hebrews,  Israelites,  and  Jews,  is,  in  the 
sacred  volume,  more  particularly  called 

1.  The  Land  of  Canaan,  from  Canaan,  the  youngest 
son  of  Ham,  and  grandson  of  Noah,  who  settled  here  after 
the  confusion  of  Babel,  and  divided  the  country  among 
his  eleven  children.  (Gcri.  xi.  15.  et  seq.) 

2.  The  Land  of  Promise,  (Heb.  xi.  9,)  from  the  pro 
mise  made  by  Jehovah  to  Abraham,   that   his  posterity 
should  possess  it,  (Gen.  xii.  7,  and  xiii.  15;)  who  being 
termed  Hebrews,  this  region  was  thence  called  the  Land 
of  the  Hebrews.  (Gen.  xl.  15.) 

3.  The  Land  of  Israel,  from  the  Israelites,  or  poste- 
rity of  Jacob,  having  settled  themselves  there.  This 
name  is  of  most  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment :  it  is  also  to  be  found  in  the  New  Testament,  (as  in 
Matt.  ii.  20,  21.)  Within  this  extent  lay  all  the  provinces 
or  countries  visited  by  Jesus  Christ,  except  Egypt,  and 
consequently  almost  all  the  places  mentioned,  or  referred 
to  in  the  four  Gospels.  After  the  separation  of  the  ten 
tribes,  that  portion  of  the  land  which  belonged  to  the 
tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  who  formed,  a  separate 
kingdom,  was  distingui'shed  by  the  appellation  of  Judsea, 
or  the  land  of  Judah,  (Psal.  Ixxvi.  1  ;)  which  name  the 
whole  country  retained  during  the  existence  of  the  second 
temple,  and  under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans. 

4.  The  Noll/  Land,  which  appellation  is  to  this  day 
conferred  on  it  by  all  Christians,  as  having  been  hallowed 
by  the  presence,  actions,  miracles,  discourses,  and  suffer- 
ings of  Jesus  Christ.  This  name  is  also  to  be  found  in 
the  Old  Tc?stament,  (Zech.  ii.  12,)  and  in  the  Apocryphal 
books  of  Wisdom  (xii.  3,)  and  2  Maccabees,  (i.  7.)  The 
whole  world  was  divided  by  the  ancient  Jews  into  two 
general  parts,  the  land  of  Israel,  and  the  land  out  of  Is- 
rael, that  is,  all  the  countries  inhabited  by  the  nations  of 
the  world,  or  the  Gentiles  ;  to  this  distinction  there  seems 
to  be  an  allusion  in  Matt.  vi.  32.  All  the  rest  of  the 
world,  together  with  its  inhabitants,  (Judapa  excepted,)  was 
accounted  as  profsine,  polluted,  and  unclean,  (see  Isa.  xxxv. 
8,  Hi.  1,  with  Joel  iii.  17,  Amos  vii.  7,  and  Acts  x.  1 ;) 


160  HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

but,  though  the  whole  land  of  Israel  was  regarded  as  holy, 
as  being  the  place  consecrated  to  the  worship  of  God,  and 
the  inheritance  of  liis  people,  whence  they  are  collectively 
styled  saints^  and  a  holy  nation  or  people,  (in  Exod.  xix.  6. 
Deut.  vii.  6,  xiv.  2,  xxvi.  19,  xxxiii.  3.  2  Chron.  vi.  41. 
Psal.  xxxiv.  9,  1.  5.  7,  Ixxix.  2,  and  cxlviii.  4,)  yet  the 
Jews  imagined  particular  parts  to  be  vested  with  more 
than  ordinary  sanctity,  according  to  their  respective  situa- 
tions. Thus  the  parts  situated  beyond  Jordan  were  con- 
sidered to  be  less  holy  than  those  on  this  side  ;  walled 
towns  were  sup])osed  to  be  more  clean  and  holy  than 
other  places,  because  no  lepers  were  admissible  into  them, 
and  the  dead  were  not  allowed  to  be  buried  there.  Even 
the  very  dust  of  the  land  of  Israel  was  reputed  to  possess 
such  a  peculiar  degree  of  sanctity,  that  when  the  Jews  re- 
turned from  any  heathen  country,  they  stopped  at  its 
borders,  and  wiped  the  dust  of  it  from  their  shoes,  lest  the 
sacred  inherhance  should  be  polluted  with  it ;  nor  would 
they  suffer  even  herbs  to  be  brought  to  them,  from  the 
ground  of  their  Gentile  neighbours,  lest  they  should  bring 
any  of  the  mould  with  them,  and  thus  defile  their  pure 
land.  To  this  notion,  our  Lord  unquestionably  alluded 
when  he  commanded  his  disciples  to  shake  off  the  dust  of 
their  feet,  (Matt.  x.  14,)  on  returning  from  any  house  or 
city  that  would  neither  receive  nor  hear  them  ;  thereby 
intimating  to  them,  that  when  the  Jews  had  rejected  the 
Gospel,  they  were  no  longer  to  be  regarded  as  the  people 
of  God,  but  were  on  a  level  with  heathens  and  idolaters. 

5.  The  appellation  of  Palestine^  by  which  tiie  whole 
land  appears  to  have  been  called,  in  the  days  of  Moses» 
(Exod.  XV.  14,)  is  derived  from  the  Philistines,  a  people 
who  mijjrated  from  Egypt,  and,  having  expelled  the  abori- 
ginal inhabitants,  settled  on  the  borders  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean ;  where  they  became  so  considerable  as  to  give 
their  name  to  the  whole  country,  though  they  in  fact  pos- 
sessed only  a  small  j)art  of  it.  The  Philistines  were,  foi 
a  long  time,  the  most  formidable  enemies  of  the  children 
of  Israel  ;  but  about  tlie  year  of  the  world  3H4I,  (n.  c. 
159,)  the  illustrious  Judas  Maccabeus  subdued  tlieir  conn- 
try  ;  and  about  sixty-five  years  afterward  Jann.Tus  burnt 
their  city  Ga/.a,  and  incorporated  th(?  remnant  of  the  Phi- 
listines with  such  Ji'ws  as  he  placed  in  their  country. 


OF  THE  HOLY  LAND  161 

The  Boundaries  of  the  land  promised  to  Abraham 
are,  in  Gen.  xv.  18,  stated  to  be  from  the  river  of  Egypt 
unto  the  great  river,  the  river  Euphrates.  Of  this  tract, 
however,  the  Israelites  were  not  immediately  put  in  pos- 
session :  and  although  the  limits  of  their  territories  were 
extended  under  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon,  (2  Sam. 
viii.  3.  et  seq.  2  Chron.  ix.  26,)  yet  they  did  not  always 
retain  that  tract.  It  lies  far  within  the  temperate  zone, 
and  between  31  and  33  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  was 
bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Mediterranean  or  Great  Sea, 
as  it  is  often  called  in  the  Scriptures  ;  on  the  east  by  Ara- 
bia ;  on  the  south  by  the  river  of  Egypt,  (or  the  river 
Nile,  whose  eastern  branch  was  reckoned  the  boundary  of 
Egypt,  towards  the  great  desert  of  Shur,  which  lies  be- 
tween Egypt  and  Palestine,)  and  by  the  Desert  of  Sin,  or 
Beersheba,  the  southern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the 
river  Arnon  ;  and  on  the  north  by  the  chain  of  mountains 
termed  Antilibanus,  near  which  stood  the  city  of  Dan  : 
hence,  in  the  sacred  writings  we  frequently  meet  with  the 
expression,  ^'-  from  Dan  to  Beersheba,^^  to  denote  the  whole 
length  of  the  land  of  Israel. 

The  land  of  Canaan,  previously  to  its  occupation  by 
the  Israelites,  was  possessed  by  the  descendants  of  Ca- 
naan, the  youngest  son  of  Ham,  and  grandson  of  Noah ; 
who  divided  the  country  among  his  eleven  sons,  each  of 
whom  was  the  head  of  a  numerous  clan  or  tribe.  (Gen.  x. 
15 — 19.)  Here  they  resided  upwards  of  seven  centuries, 
and  founded  numerous  republics  and  kingdoms.  In  the 
days  of  Abraham,  this  region  was  occupied  by  ten  nations  ; 
the  Kenites,  the  Kenizzites,  and  the  Kadraonites,  to  the 
east  of  Jordan  ;  and  westward,  the  Hittites,  Porizzites, 
Rephaims,  Amorites,  Canaanites,  Girgashites,  and  the  Je- 
busitcs.  (Gen.  xv.  18 — 21.)  These  latter,  in  the  days  of 
Moses,  were  called  the  Hittites,  Girgashites,  Amorites, 
Canaanites,  Perizzites,  Hivites,  and  Jebusites.  (Deut.  vii. 
1.  Josh.  iii.  10,  xxiv.  11.)  Besides  these  devoted  nations 
there  were  others,  either  settled  in  the  land,  at  the  arrival 
of  the  Israelites,  or  in  its  immediate  environs,  with  whom 
the  latter  had  to  maintain  many  severe  conflicts  :  they 
were  six  in  number,  viz. :  the  Philistines,  the  Midianites, 
or  descendants  of  Midian,  the  fourth  son  of  Abraham,  by 
Keturah,  (Gen.  xxv.  2 ;)  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites, 
14* 


1^  HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

who  sprang  from  the  incestuous  offspring  of  Lot;  (Gen 
xix.  30 — 38  ;)  the  Amalekites,  who  were  descended  frora 
Amalek,  the  son  of  Ham,  and  ^^andson  of  Noah ;  and 
the  Edomites,  or  descendants  of  Esau  or  Edom. 

On  tiie  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  children  of  Israel, 
Joshua  divided  it  into  twelve  parts,  which  tlie  twelve  tribes 
drew  by  lot.  The  tribe  of  Levi,  indeed,  possessed  no 
lands  :  God  assigned  to  the  Levites,  who  were  appointed 
to  minister  in  holy  things,  without  any  secular  incum- 
brance, the  tenths  and  first-fruits  of  the  estates  of  their 
brethren.  Forty-eight  cities  were  appropriated  to  their 
residence,  thence  called  Levitical  cities  ;  these  were  dis- 
persed among  the  twelve  tribes,  and  had  their  respective 
suburbs,  with  land  surrounding  them.  Of  these  cities  the 
Kohathites  received  twenty-three,  the  Gershomites  thir- 
teen, and  the  Merarites  twelve  ;  and  six  of  tiiem,  tliree  on 
each  side  of  Jordan,  were  appointed  to  be  cities  of  refuge, 
whither  the  inadvertant  man-slayer  might  tlee,  and  find 
an  asylum  from  his  pursuers,  and  be  secured  from  the 
effects  of  private  revenge,  until  cleared  by  a  legal  pro- 
cess. (Numb.  XXXV.  6 — 15.  Dent.  xix.  4 — 10.  Josh.  xx.  7, 
8.)  In  this  division  of  the  land  into  twelve  portions,  the 
posterity  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  (the  two  sons  of  Jo- 
seph) had  their  portions  as  distinct  tribes,  in  consequence 
of  Jacob  having  adopted  them  ;  and  these  two  are  reckon- 
ed instead  of  Joseph  and  Levi.  Tbe  tribes  of  Reuben, 
Gad,  and  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  had  their  portion  beyond 
Jordan  ;  the  rest  settled  on  this  side  of  the  river.  Dan 
was  reputed  to  be  tiie  furthest  city  to  the  north  of  the  Holy 
Land,  as  Beersheba  was  to  the  south. 

Another  division  of  tlie  Holy  Land  took  place  after  the 
death  of  Solomon,  when  ten  tribes  revolted  from  Roho- 
boam,  and  erected  themst.'lves  into  a  separate  kiniidom 
under  Jeroboam.  This  was  called  the  kiiii,'dom  of  Israel, 
and  its  metropolis  was  Samaria.  The  otlier  two  tribes  of 
Benjamin  and  Judali,  continuinc:  faithful  to  Rehoboam, 
formed  tlie  kingdom  of  Judal),  wiiose  capital  was  Jerusa- 
lem. But  this  division  ceased  on  the  subversion  of  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  by  Sliaimaneser  king  of  Assyria,  after 
it  had  sul)sisted  two  liundred  and  fiftv-four  years,  from  the 
year  of  the  world  3030  to  32i^3.  (n.'c.  717.) 

In  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  whole  of  this  countrv 


OF  THE  HOLY  LAND.  163 

was  divided  into  four  separate  regions,  viz. :  Judaea,  Sa- 
maria, Galilee,  and  Perae,  or  the  country  beyond  Jordan. 

I.  JuDjEA. — Of  these  regions,  Judaea  was  the  most  distin- 
guished, comprising  the  territories  which  had  formerly  be- 
longed to  the  tribes  of  Judah,  Benjamin,  Simeon,  and  part 
of  the  tribe  of  Dan.  The  southern  part  of  it  was  called 
Idumaea,  and  it  extended  westward  from  the  Dead  Sea  to 
the  Great  (or  Mediterranean)  Sea.  Its  metropolis  was 
Jerusalem,  of  which  a  separate  notice  will  be  found  in  a 
subsequent  number  :  and  of  the  other  towns  or  villages  of 
note,  contained  in  this  region,  the  most  remarkable  were 
Arimathea,  Azotus,  or  Ashdod,  Bethany,  Bethlehem, 
Bethphage,  Emmaus,  Ephraim,  Gaza,  Jericho,  Joppa, 
Lydda,  and  Rama. 

II.  Samaria. — This  division  of  the  Holy  Land  derives 
its  name  from  the  city  of  Samaria,  and  comprises  the  tract 
of  country  which  was  originally  occupied  by  the  two 
tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  within  Jordan,  lying  ex- 
actly in  the  middle,  between  Judaea  and  Galilee  ;  so  that 
it  was  absolutely  necessary  for  persons,  who  were  desirous 
of  going  expeditiously  from  Galilee  to  Jerusalem,  to  pass 
through  this  country.  This  sufficiently  explains  the  remark 
of  St.  John  (iv.  4.)  The  three  chief  places  of  this  dl 
vision  noticed  in  the  Scriptures  are,  Samaria,  Sichem,  or 
Schechem,  and  Antipatris. 

III.  Galilee. — This  portion  of  the  Holy  Land  is  very 
frequently  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament;  it  exceed- 
ed Judsea  in  extent,  but  its  limits  probably  varied  at  diffe- 
rent times.  It  comprised  the  country  formerly  occupied 
by  the  tribes  of  Issachar,  Zebulun,  Naphtali,  and  Asher, 
and  part  of  the  tribe  of  Dan  ;  and  is  divided  by  Josephus 
into  Upper  and  Lower  Galilee.  Upper  Galilee  abounded 
in  mountains  ;  and,  from  its  vicinity  to  the  Gentiles  who 
inhabited  the  cities  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  it  is  called  Gali- 
lee of  the  Gentiles  (Matt.  iv.  15,)  and  the  coasts  of  Tyre 
and  Sidon.  (Mark  vii.  31.)  The  principal  city  in  this 
region  was  Caesarea  Philippi,  through  which  the  main 
road  lay  to  Damascus,  Tyre,  and  Sidon.  Lower  Galilee 
was  situated  in  a  rich  and  fertile  plain  between  the  Me- 
diterranean Sea  and  the  lake  of  Gennesareth  ;  and, 
according  to  Josephus,  this  district  was  very  populous, 
containing  upwards  of  two  hundred  cities  and  towns. 


164 


HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY 


This  country  was  most  honoured  by  our  Saviour's  pre- 
sence. The  principal  cities  of  lower  Galilre,  mentioned 
in  the  New  Testament,  are  Tiberias,  Capernaum,  Chora- 
zin,  Bethsaida,  Nazareth,  Cana,  Nain,  Caesarea  of  Pales- 
tine, and  Ptolemais.  .   ' 

IV.  PfiRiEA. — This  district  comprised  the  six  following 
provinces  or  cantons,  viz.  :  Abilene,  Trachonitis  Ituraea, 
Gaulonitis,  Batanea,  and  Peraea,  strictly  so  called,  to  which 
some  geographers  have  added  Decapolis.  1.  Abilene. 
\  was  the  most  northern  of  these  provinces,  being  situated 
between  the  mountains  of  Libanus  and  Antilibanus,  and 
deriving  its  name  from  the  city  Abila.  It  is  one  of  the  four 
tetrarchies  mentioned  by  Saint  Luke  (iii.  1.)  2.  Tra- 
chonitis was  bounded  by  the  desert  Arabia  on  the  east, 
Batanea  on  the  west,  ItursBa  on  the  south,  and  the  coun- 
try of  Damascus  on  the  north.  It  abounded  with  rocks, 
which  afforded  shelter  to  numerous  thieves  and  robbers. 

3.  IxuRiEA  anciently  belonged  to  the  half  tribe  of  Manas- 
seh,  who  settled  on  the  east  of  Jordan  :  it  stood  to  the 
east  of  Batanea  and  to  the  south  of  Trachonitis.  Of  these 
two  cantons  Philip,  the  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  was  te- 
trarch  at  the  time  John  the  Baptist  commenced  his  minis- 
try. (Luke  iii.  1.)  It  derived  its  name  from  Jetur,  the 
son  of  Ishmael,  (I  Chron.  i.  31,)  and  was  also  called 
Auranitis  from  the  city  of  Hauran.    (Ezek.  xlvii.  16.  18.) 

4.  Gaulonitis  was  a  tract  on  the  east  side  of  the  lake  of 
Gennesareth,  and  the  river  Jordan,  which  derived  its 
name  from  Gaulan  or  Golan  the  city  of  Og,  king  of  Ba- 
shan.  (Josh.  xx.  8.)  This  canton  is  not  mentioned  in 
the  New  Testament.  6.  Batanea,  the  ancient  kingdom 
of  Bashan,  was  situated  to  the  north-east  of  Gaulonitis : 
its  limits  are  not  easy  to  be  defined.  It  was  part  of  the 
territory  given  to  Herod  Antipas  and  is  not  noticed  in  the 
New  Testament.  6.  Per^a,  in  its  restricted  sense,  in- 
cludes the  southern  part  of  the  country  beyond  Jordan, 
lying  south  of  Ituraea,  east  cf  Judeae  and  Samaria  ;  and 
was  anciently  possessed  by  the  two  tribes  of  Reuben  and 
Gad.  Its  principal  place  was  the  strong  fortress  of  Ma- 
chaerus,  erected  for  the  purpose  of  checking  the  predatory 
incursions  of  the  Arabs.  This  fortress,  though  not  spe- 
cified by  name  in  the  New  Testament,  is  memorable  as 
the  place  where  Jolui  the  Baptist  was  put  to  death.  (MatL 


OF  THE  HOLY  LAND.  165 

xiv.  3—12.)  The  canton  of  Decapolis,  (Matt.  iv.  25. 
Mark  v.  20,  and  vii.  31,)  which  derives  its  name  from 
the  ten  cities  it  contained,  was  part  of  the  region  of  Peraea. 
Concerning  its  limits,  and  the  names  of  its  ten  cities,  geo- 
graphers are  by  no  means  agreed  :  among  them,  however, 
we  may  safely  reckon  Gadara,  where  our  Saviour  wrought 
some  miracles,  and  perhaps  Damascus,  chiefly  celebrated 
for  the  conversion  of  Saint  Paul,  which  took  place  in  its 
vicinity.  Of  the  whole  country  thus  described,  Jerusa- 
lem was  the  metropolis  during  the  reigns  of  David  and 
Solomon ;  after  the  secession  of  the  ten  tribes,  it  was  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  but  during  the  time  of 
Christ,  and  until  the  subversion  of  the  Jewish  polity,  it 
was  the  metropolis  of  Palestine. 

Jerusalem  is  frequently  styled  in  the  Scriptures  the 
Holy  City,  (Isa.  xlviii.  2.  Dan.  ix.  24.  Nehem.  xi.  1. 
Matt.  iv.  5.  Rev.  xi.  2,)  because  the  Lord  chose  it  out  of 
all  the  tribes  of  Israel  to  place  his  name  there,  his  temple 
find  his  worship ;  (Deut.  xii.  5,  xiv.  23,  xvi.  2,  xxvi.  2 ;) 
and  to  be  the  centre  of  union  in  religion  and  government 
for  all  the  tribes  of  the  commonwealth  of  Israel.  It  is 
held  in  the  highest  veneration  by  Christians  for  the  mira- 
culous and  important  transactions  which  happened  there, 
and  also  by  the  Mahommedans,  who  to  this  day  never 
call  it  by  any  other  appellation  than  El-Kods,  or  the  Holy, 
sometimes  adding  the  epithet  El- Sheriff,  or  The  Noble. 
The  original  name  of  the  city  was  Salem,  or  Peace  :  (Gen. 
xiv.  18  :)  the  import  of  Jerusalem  is,  the  vision  or  inhe- 
ritance of  peace  ;  and  to  this  it  is  not  improbable  that  our 
Saviour  alluded  in  his  beautiful  and  pathetic  lamentation 
over  the  city.  (Luke  xix.  41.)  It  was  also  formerly- 
called  Jehus  from  one  of  the  sons  of  Canaan.  (Josh, 
xviii.  28.)  After  its  capture  by  Joshua,  (Josh,  x.)  it  was 
jointly  inhabited  both  by  Jews  and  Jebusites  (Josh.  xv. 
63,)  for  about  five  hundred  years,  until  the  time  of  David ; 
who,  having  expelled  the  Jebusites,  made  it  his  re- 
sidence, (2  Sam.  v.  6 — 9,)  and  erected  a  noble  palace 
there,  together  with  several  other  magnificent  buildings, 
whence  it  is  sometimes  styled  the  City  of  David.  (1 
Chron.  xi.  5.) 

Jerusalem,  after  its  destruction  by  the  Chaldaeans,  was 
rebuilt  by  the  Jews,  on  their  return  from  the  Babylonish 


166 


HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY 


captivity.  The  city  was  built  on  three  principal  hills ; 
viz.  :  1.  ^io?ii  on  the  southern  side,  which  was  the  highest, 
and  contained  the  citadel,  the  king's  palace,  and  the  up- 
per city.  2.  Moriah,  on  which  was  the  temple,  a  smaller 
eminence  on  the  east  of  the  northern  part  of  Sion,  and 
separated  from  it  by  a  valley,  over  which  was  a  bridge  ; 
and  3.  Acra,  so  called  in  a  later  age,  lying  north  of  Sion, 
and  covered  by  the  lower  city,  which  was  the  most  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  whole  metropolis. 

On  the  south  side  stood  the  mount  of  Corruption, 
where  Solomon,  in  his  declining  years,  built  temples  to 
Moloch,  Chemosh,  and  Ashtaroth.  (1  Kings,  xi.  7.  2 
Kings  xxiii.  13.) 

Towards  the  west,  and  without  the  walls  of  the  city, 
agreeably  to  the  law  of  Moses,  (Levit.  iv,)  lay  mount 
Calvary  or  Golgotha,  that  is,  the  place  of  a  skull.  (Matt, 
xxvii.  33.) 

During  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  Jerusalem  was  adorn- 
ed with  numerous  edifices,  some  of  which  are  mentioned 
or  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament ;  but  its  chief  glory 
was  tl.e  Temple,  (described  in.a  subsequent  page,)  which 
iTia;^nificent  and  extensive  structure  occupied  the  northern 
and  lower  eminence  of  Sion,  as  we  learn  from. the  Psal- 
mist, (xlviii.  2.)  Beautiful  for  situation^  the  delight  of 
the  whole  earthy  is  Mount  Sion.  On  her  north  side  is  the 
city  of  the  great  king. 

Next  to  the  temple  in  point  of  splendour,  was  the  very 
suporb  palace  of  Herod,  wnich  is  largely  described  by  Jo- 
i^ephus  ;  it  afterwards  became  the  residence  of  the  Koman 
procurators,  who  for  this  purpose  generally  claimed  the 
royal  palaces  in  those  provinces  which  were  subject  to 
kings.  These  dwellings  of  the  Roman  procurators  in  t!u' 
provinces  were  called  prcetoria:  Herod's  palace  therefore 
was  Pilate's  praetorium :  (Matt,  xxvii.  27.  Johnxviii.  28:) 
and  in  some  part  of  this  edifice  was  the  armoury  or  bar- 
rack of  the  Roman  soldiers  that  garrisoned  Jerusalem, 
whither  Jesus  was  conducted  and  mocked  by  them. 
(Matt,  xxvii.  27.  Mark  xv.  16.)  In  the  front  of  this  pa- 
lace was  the  tribunal,  where  Pilate  sat  in  a  judicial  capa- 
city to  hear  and  determine  weighty  causes  :  being  a  raised 
pavement  of  Mosaic  work,  (xiOoro'^ro.,  lithostroton,)  the 
evangelist  informs  us,  that  in  the  Hebrew  language  it  waa 


OF  THE  HOLY  LAND.  167 

on  this  account  termed  gabhatha,  (John  xix.  13,)  i.  e.  an 
elevated  place.  On  a  steep  rock,  adjoining  the  north-west 
corner  of  the  Temple,  stood  the  Tower  of  Antonia,  a 
strong  citadel,  in  which  a  Roman  legion  was  always 
quartered.  It  overlooked  the  two  outer  courts  of  the 
temple,  and  communicated  with  its  cloisters  by  means  of 
secret  passages,  through  which  the  military  could  descend 
and  quell  any  tumult  that  might  arise  during  the  great 
festivals.  This  was  the  guard  to  which  Pilate  alluded  in 
Matt,  xxvii  .  65.  The  tower  of  Antonia  was  thus  named 
by  Herod,  in  honour  of  his  friend  Mark  Antony  :  and  this 
citadel  is  the  castle  into  which  St.  Paul  was  conducted, 
(Acts  xxi.  34,  35,)  and  of  which  mention  is  made  in  Acts 
xxii.  21.  As  the  temple  was  a  fortress  that  guarded  the 
whole  city  of  Jerusalem,  so  the  tower  of  Antonia  was  a 
guard  that  entirely  commanded  the  temple.  According 
to  the  Jewish  Historian,  Josephus,  the  circumference  of 
Jerusalem,  previously  to  its  being  besieged  and  destroyed 
by  the  Roman  army,  was  thirty-three  furlongs,  or  nearly 
four  miles  and  a  half:  and  the  wall  of  circumvallation, 
constructed  by  order  of  the  Roman  general,  Titus,  he 
states  to  have  been  thirty-nine  furlongs,  or  four  miles  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-five  paces. 

During  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon,  Jerusalem 
was  the  metropolis  of  the  land  of  Israel ;  but,  after  the 
defection  of  the  ten  tribes  under  Jeroboam,  it  was  the 
capital  of  the  kings  of  Judah,  during  whose  government 
it  underwent  various  revolutions.  It  was  captured  four 
times  without  being  demolished,  viz.  :  by  Shishak,  sove- 
reign of  Egypt,  (2  Chron.  xii,)  from  whose  ravages  it 
never  recovered  its  former  splendour  ;  by  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes,  who  treated  the  Jews  with  singular  barbarity; 
by  Pompey  the  Great,  who  rendered  the  Jews  tributary 
to  Rome  ;  and  by  Herod,  with  the  assistance  of  a  Roman 
force  under  Sosius.  It  was  first  entirely  destroyed  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  again  by  the  emperor  Titus,  the  re- 
peated insurrections  of  the  turbulent  Jews  having  filled 
up  the  measure  of  their  iniquities,  and  drawn  down  upon 
them  the  implacable  vengeance  of  the  Romans.  Titus 
inefTectually  endeavoured  to  save  the  temple  :  it  was  in- 
volved in  the  same  ruin  with  the  rest  of  the  city,  and, 
after  it  had  been  reduced  to  ashes,  the  foundations  of  that 


1^  HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

sacred  edifice  were  ploughed  up  by  the  Eoman  soldiers. 
Thus  literally  was  fulfilled  the  prediction  of  our  Lord, 
that  not  one  stone  should  be  left  upon  another  that  should 
not  be  thrown  down.  (Matt.  xxiv.  2.)  On  his  return  to 
Rome,  Titus  was  honoured  with  a  triumph  ;  and,  to 
commemorate  his  conquest  of  Judaea,  a  triumphal  arch 
was  erected,  which  is  still  in  existence.  Numerous 
medals  of  Judaea  vanquished  were  struck  in  honour  of 
the  same  event.  A  representation  of  one  of  these  is  given 
in  page  23.  supra. 

The  emperor  Adrian  erected  a  city  on  part  of  the 
former  site  of  Jerusalem,  which  he  called  jElia  Capito- 
lina  :  it  was  afterwards  greatly  enlarged  and  beautified  by 
Constantino  the  Great,  who  restored  its  ancient  name. 
During  that  emperor's  reign,  the  Jews  made  various  efforts 
to  rebuild  their  temple,  which,  however,  were  always  frus- 
trated ;  nor  did  better  success  attend  the  attempt  made 
A.  D.  363,  by  the  apostate  emperor  Julian.  An  earth- 
quake, a  whirlwind,  and  a  fiery  eruption,  compelled  the 
workmen  to  abandon  their  design. 

From  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans  to 
the  present  time,  that  city  has  remained,  for  the  most 
part,  in  a  state  of  ruin  and  desolation ;  "  and  has  never 
been  under  the  government  of  the  Jews  themselves,  but 
oppressed  and  broken  down  by  a  succession  of  foreign 
masters — the  Romans,  the  Saracens,  the  Franks,  the 
Mamelukes,  and  last  by  the  Turks,  to  whom  it  is  still 
subject.  It  is  not,  therefore,  only  in  the  history  of  Jose- 
phus,  and  in  other  ancient  writers,  that  we  are  to  look 
for  the  accomplishment  of  our  Lord's  predictions  : — we 
see  them  verified  at  this  moment  before  our  eyes,  in  the 
desolate  state  of  the  once  celebrated  city  and  temple  of 
Jerusalem,  and  in  the  present  condition  of  the  Jewish 
people,  not  collected  together  into  any  one  country,  into 
one  political  society,  and  under  one  form  of  government, 
but  dispersed  over  every  region  of  the  globe,  and  every 
where  treated  with  contumely  and  scorn."    (Bp.  Porteus.) 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE   HOLY  LAND. 


169 


Mount  Tabor,  as  seen  from  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon. 
CHAPTER  II. 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OT   THE  HOLY  LAND. 

The  surface  of  ibe  Holy  Land  being  diversified  with 
mountains  and  plains,  its  climatr  varies  in  different 
places ;  though  in  general  it  is  more  settled  than  in  our 
more  western  countries.  Generally  speaking,  however, 
the  atmosphere  is  mild  ;  the  summers  are  commonly  dry 
and  extremely  hot :  intensely  hot  days,  however,  are  fre- 
quently succeeded  by  intensely  cold  nights  ;  and  it  is  to 
these  sudden  vicissitudes,  and  their  consequent  effects  on 
the  human  frame,  that  Jacob  refers,  when  he  says  that 
in  the  day  the  drought  consumed  him,  and  the  frost  by 
night.     (Gen.  xxxi.  40.) 

Six  several  seasons  of  the  natural  year  are  indicated 
in  Gen.  viii.  22.  viz. :  seed-time  and  harvest,  cold  and  heaty 
summer  and  winter  ;  and  as  agriculture  constituted  the 
principal  employment  of  the  Jews,  we  are  informed  by 
the  rabbinical  writers,  that  they  adopted  the  same  division 
of  seasons,  with  reference  to  their  rural  work.  These 
divisions  also  exist  among  the  Arabs  to  this  day. 

1.   Seed-time  comprised  the  latter  half  of  the  Jev/ish 

month  Tisri,  the  whole  of  Marchesvan,  and  the  former 

half  of  Kisleu  or  Chisleu,  that  is,  from  the  beginning  oJ^ 

October  to  the  beginning  of  December.     During  this  sea* 

15 


170 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 


son  the  weather  is  various,  very  often  misty,  cloudy,  with 
mizzlin<T  or  pouring  rain. 

2.  Winter  included  the  latter  half  of  Chisleu,  the 
whole  of  Tebeth,  and  the  former  part  of  Shebeth,  that  is, 
from  the  beginning  of  December  lo  the  beginning  of 
February.  In  this  season,  snows  rarely  fall,  except  on 
the  mountains,  but  they  seldom  continue  a  whole  day ; 
the  ice  is  thin  and  melts  as  soon  as  the  sun  ascends  above 
the  horizon.  As  the  season  advances,  the  north  wmd 
and  the  cold,  especially  on  the  lofty  mountains,  which  are 
now  covered  with  snow,  is  intensely  severe,  and  some- 
times even  fatal :  the  cold  is  frequently  so  piercing,  that 
persons  born  in  our  climate  can  scarcely  endure  it.  The 
cold,  however,  varies  in  the  degree  of  its  severity,  accord- 
ing to  the  local  situaiion  of  the  country. 

3.  The  COLD  SEASON  comprises  the  latter  half  of  She- 
beth, the  whole  of  Adar,  and  the  former  half  of  Nisan, 
from  the  beginning  of  February  to  the  beginning  of  April. 
At  the  commencement  of  this  season,  the  weather  is  cold, 
but  it  gradually  becomes  warm  and  even  hot,  particularly 
in  the  plain  of  Jericho.  Thunder,  lightning,  and  hail 
are  frequent.  Vegetable  nature  now  revives  ;  the  almond 
tree  blossoms,  and  the  gardens  assume  a  delightful  ap- 
pearance. Barley  is  ripe  at  Jericho,  though  but  little 
wheat  is  in  the  ear. 

4.  The  HARVEST  includes  the  latter  half  of  Nisan,  the 
whole  of  Jyar(or  Zif,)  and  the  former  halfof  Sivan,  that 
is,  from  the  beginning  of  April  to  the  beginning  of  June. 
In  the  plain  of  Jericho  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  excessive, 
though  in  other  parts  of  Palestine  the  weather  is  most 
delightful  ;  and  on  the  sea-coast  the  heat  is  tempered  by 
morning  and  evening  breezes  from  the  sea 

5.  The  SUMMER  comprehends  the  latter  half  of  Sivan, 
the  whole  of  Thammuz,  and  the  former  half  of  Ah,  that 
is,  from  the  ben^inning  of  June  to  the  beginning  of  August. 
The  heat  of  the  weather  increases,  and  the  nights  are  so 
warm  that  the  inhabitants  sleep  on  their  house-tops  in  the 
open  air. 

6.  The  HOT  SEASON  includes  the  latter  halfof  Ab,  the 
whole  of  Elul,  and  the  former  halfof  Tisri,  that  is,  from 
the  beginning  of  August  to  the  beginning  of  October. 
During  the  chief  part  of  this  season  the  heat  is  intense, 


OF  THE  HOLY  LAND.  X7X 

though  less  so  at  Jerusalem  than  in  the  plain  of  Jericho  : 
there  is  no  cold,  not  even  in  the  night,  so  that  travellers 
pass  whole  nights  in  the  open  air  without  inconvenience. 
Lebanon  is  for  the  most  part  free  from  snow,  except  in 
the  caverns  and  defiles  where  the  sun  cannot  penetrate. 

During  the  hot  season,  it  is  not  uncommon  in  the  East 
Indies  for  persons  to  die  suddenly,  in  consequence  of  the 
extreme  heat  of  the  solar  rays,  (whence  the  necessity  of 
being  carried  in  a  palanquin.)  This  is  now  commonly 
termed  a  coup-de-soleil  or  stroke  of  the  sun.  The  son  of 
the  woman  of  Shunem  appears  to  have  died  in  conse- 
quence of  a  coup-de-soleil ;  (2  Kings  iv.  19,  20  ;)  to  which 
there  is  an  allusion  in  Psalm  cxxi.  2. 

Rain  falls  but  rarely,  except  in  autumn  and  spring  ;  but 
its  absence  is  partly  supplied  by  the  very  copious  dews 
which  fall  during  the  night.  The  early  or  autumnal 
rains  and  the  latter  or  spring  rains  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  the  support  of  vegetation,  and  were  consequently 
objects  greatly  desired  by  the  Israelites  and  Jews.  The 
early  rains  generally  fall  about  the  beginning  of  Novem- 
ber, when  they  usually  ploughed  their  lands  and  sowed 
their  corn  ;  and  the  latter  rains  fall  sometimes  towards 
the  middle,  and  sometimes  towards  the  close  of  April ; 
that  is,  a  short  time  before  they  gathered  in  their 
harvest.  These  rains,  however,  were  always  chilly 
(Ezra  x.  9,  and  Song  ii.  11,)  and  often  preceded  by 
whirlwinds,  (2  Kings  iii.  16,  17,)  that  raised  such 
quantities  of  sand  as  to  darken  the  sky,  or,  in  the  words 
of  the  sacred  historian,  to  make  the  heavens  black  with 
clouds  and  wind.  (1  Kings  xviii.  45.)  In  the  figurative 
language  of  the  Scripture,  these  whirlwinds  are  termed 
the  command  3ind  thez^or^  of  God  :  (Psalm  cxlvii.  15.  18:) 
and  as  they  are  sometimes  fatal  to  travellers  who  are 
overwhelmed  in  the  deserts,  the  rapidity  of  their  advance 
is  elegantly  employed  by  Solomon  to  show  the  certainty 
as  well  as  the  suddenness  of  that  destruction  which  will 
befall  the  impenitently  wicked.  (Prov.  i.  27.)  The 
rains  descend  in  Palestine  with  great  violence ;  and  as 
whole  villages  in  the  east  are  constructed  only  with  palm- 
branches,  mud,  and  tiles  baked  in  the  sun,  (perhaps  cor- 
responding to  and  explanatory  of  the  untempered  mortar 
noticed  in  Ezek.  xiii.   11,)  these  rains  not  unfrequently 


172  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

dissolve  the  cement,  such  as  it  is,  and  the  houses  fall  to 
the  ground.  To  these  effects  our  Lord  probably  alludes 
in  Matt.  vii.  25 — 27.  Very  small  clouds  are  likewise 
the  forerunners  of  violent  storms  and  hurricanes  in  the 
east  as  well  as  in  the  west :  they  rise  like  a  majCs  hand^ 
(1  Kings  xviii.  44,)  until  the  whole  sky  becomes  black 
■with  rain,  which  descends  in  torrents.  In  our  Lord's 
time,  this  phenomenon  seems  to  have  become  a  certain 
prognostic  of  wet  weather.     See  Luke  xii.  54. 

\n  consequence  of  the  paucity  of  showers  in  the  east. 
Water  is  an  article  of  great  importance  to  the  inhabitants. 
Hence,  in  Lot's  estimation,  it  was  a  principal  recommen- 
dation of  the  plain  of  Jordan  that  it  was  icell  watered  every 
where:  (Gen.  xiii.  10:)  and  the  same  advantage  continued 
in  later  ages  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  Israelites,  whose  coun- 
try was  intersected  by  numerous  brooks  and  streams. 

Although  rivers  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  sacred 
writings,  yet,  strictly  speaking,  the  only  river  in  the  Holy 
Land  is  the  Jordan,  wbicli  is  sometimes  designated  in 
Scripture  as  the  river  without  any  addition  ;  as  also  is  the 
Nile,  (Gen.  xli.  1.  Exod.  i.  22,  ii.  5,  iv.  9,  vii.  18,  and  viii. 
3.  9.  11,)  and,  occasionally,  the  Euphrates:  (as  in  Jer.  ii. 
16:)  in  tiie  passages  here  referred  to,  the  tenor  of  tiie  dis 
course  must  determine  which  is  the  river  actually  intend- 
ed by  the  sacred  writers.  The  name  of  river  is  also  given 
to  inconsiderable  streams  and  rivulets,  as  to  the  Kishon 
(Judges  iv.  7,  and  v.  21,)  and  the  Anion.    (Deut.  iii.  16.) 

The  principal  river  which  waters  Palestine  is  the  Jor- 
dan, or  Yar-Daiiy  i.  e.  the  river  of  Dan,  so  called  because 
it  takes  its  rise  in  the  vicinity  of  the  little  city  of  Dan, 
Its  true  source  is  in  the  lake  Phiala,  near  Cfesarea  Pbilippi, 
at  the  foot  of  Antilibanus,  or  the  eastern  ridge  of  mount 
Lebanon,  whence  it  passes  under  ground,  and,  emerging 
to  the  light  from  a  cave  in  the  vicinity  of  Panras,  it  Hows 
due  south  through  the  centre  of  the  country,  intersecting 
the  lake  MiTom  and  the  sea  or  lake  of  Galilee,  and  (it  is 
said)  without  mimrling  with  its  waters  ;  and  it  loses  itself 
in  tlie  lake  Asphaltites  or  the  Dead  Sea,  into  which  it 
rolls  a  considerable  volume  of  deep  water,  and  so  rapid  as 
to  prevent  a  strong,  active  and  expert  suinmier  from 
swimming  across  it.  The  course  of  the  Jordan  is  about 
one  hundred  miles  ;  its  breadth  and  depth  are  various. 


THE  HOLY  LAND.  173 

All  travellers  concur  in  stating  that  its  waters  are  turbid, 
from  the  rapidity  with  which  they  flow. 

Anciently,  the  Jordan  overflowed  its  banks  about  the 
time  of  barley  harvest,  (Josh.  iii.  15,  iv.  18.     1  Chron.  xii. 

15.  Jer.  xlix.  19,)  or  the  feast  of  the  passover  ;  when, 
the  snows  being  dissolved  on  the  mountains,  the  torrents 
discharged  themselves  into  its  channel  with  great  impetu- 
osity. Its  banks  are  covered  with  various  kinds  of  bushes 
and  shrubs,  which  afford  an  asylum  for  wild  animals  now, 
as  they  did  in  the  time  of  Jeremiah,  who  alludes  to  them. 
(Jer.  xlix.  19.) 

The  other  remarkable  streams,  or  rivulets  of  Palestine, 
are  the  following,  viz. :  1.  The  Arnon,  which  descends  from 
the  mountain  of  the  same  name,  and  discharges  itself  into 
the  Dead  Sea  : — 2.  The  Sihor  (the  Belus  of  ancient  geo- 
graphers, at  present  called  the  Kardanah,)  has  its  source 
about  four  miles  to  the  east  of  the  heads  of  the  river  Ki- 
shon.  It  waters  the  plains  of  Acre  and  Esdraelon,  and 
falls  into  the  sea  at  the  gulph  of  Keilah  : — 3.  The  brook 
Jabhok  takes  its  rise  in  the  same  mountains,  and  falls  into 
the  river  Jordan : — 4.  The  Kanah^  or  brook  of  reeds, 
springs  from  the  mountains  of  Judah,  but  only  flows  du- 
ring the  winter :  it  falls  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  near 
CfCsarea  : — 5.  The  brook  Besor,  (1  Sam.  xxx.  9,)  falls 
into  the  same  sea,  between  Gaza  and  Rhinocorura  : — 6. 
The  Kishon  issues  from  the  mountains  of  Carmel,  at  the 
foot  of  which  it  forms  two  streams  ;  one  flows  eastward 
into  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  the  other,  taking  a  westerly 
course  through  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  or  Esdraelon,  dischar- 
ges itself  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  This  is  the  stream 
noticed  in  1  Kings  xviii.  40 : — 7.  Kedron^  Kidron,  or 
Cedron,  as  it  is  variously  termed,*  runs  in  the  valley  of 
Jehoshaphat,  eastward  of  Jerusalem,  between  that  city 
and  the  mount  of  Olives  :  except  during  the  winter,  or 
after  heavy  rains,  its  channel  is  generally  dry,  but,  when 
swollen  by  torrents,  it  flows  with  great  impetuosity. 

Lakes,  Seas,  &c. 

Of  the  Lakes  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  two  are  par- 
ticularly worthy  of  notice  ;  that  of  Gennesareth,  and  the 

•  2  Sam.  XV.  23.     1  Kings  xv.  13.    2  Kings  xxiii.  6.  12.    2  Chron. 

16.  Jer.  xxxi.  40.    John  xviii.  l. 

15* 


174  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

lake  of  Sodom,  both  of  which  are  termed  seas,  agreeably 
lo  the  Hebrew  phraseology,  which  gives  the  name  of  sea 
to  any  large  body  of  water. 

Tlie  Sea  of  Galilee,  through  which  the  Jordan  flows, 
was  anciently  called  the  Sea  of  Chinneretli,  (Numb,  xxxiv. 
11,)  or  Cinneroth,  (Josh.  xii.  3,)  from  its  vicinity  to  the 
town  of  that  name  ;  afterwards,  Genesar,  (1  Mac.  xi.  67,) 
and  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  Genesareth,  or  Genneza- 
reth,  (Luke  v.  1,)  from  the  neighbouring  land  of  the  same 
name,  (Matt  xiv.  34.  Mark  xv.  53,)  and  also  the  sea  of 
Tiberias,  (John  vi.  1,  xxi.  1,)  from  the  contiguous  city  of 
Tiberias.  The  waters  of  this  lake  are  very  sweet,  and 
abound  with  fish  :  this  circumstance  marks  the  propriety 
of  our  Lord's  parable  of  the  net  cast  into  tlie  sea,  (Matt, 
xiii.  47 — 49,)  near  the  shore.  Pliny  states  this  lake  to 
be  sixteen  miles  in  length,  by  six  miles  in  breadth.  Dr. 
D.  E.  Clarke,  by  whom  it  was  visited  rather  more  than 
twenty  years  since,  describes  it  as  longer,  and  finer  than 
our  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland  lakes,  although  it 
yields  in  majesty  to  the  stupendous  features  of  Loch 
Lomond,  in  Scotland  :  like  our  Wmdermere,  the  lake  of 
Gennezareth  is  often  greatly  agitated  by  winds.  (Matt 
viii.  23—27. 

The  Lake,  or  Sea  op  Sodom,  or  the  Dead  Sea,  is 
about  seventy-two  English  miles  in  length,  and  nearly 
nineteen  in  breadth.  It  was  anciently  called  in  the  JScrip- 
tures,  the  Sea  of  the  Plain,  (Deut.  iii.  17,  iv.  49,)  being 
situated  in  a  valley,  with  a  plain  lying  to  the  south  of  it ; 
the  Salt  Sea,  (Deut.  iii.  17.  Josh.  xv.  5,)  from  the  ex- 
tremely saline,  bitter,  and  nauseous  taste  of  its  waters  ; 
the  Salt  Sea  eastward,  (^Numb.  xxxiv.  3,)  and  the  I^ast 
Sea,  (Ezek.  xlvii.  18.  Joel  ii.  20.)  By  Josejihus  and 
other  writers,  it  is  called  the  lake  Asphaltites,  from  the 
abundance  of  bitumen  found  in  it;  and  also  the  Dead 
Sea,  from  ancient  traditions,  erroneously,  though  gene- 
rally received,  that  no  living  creature  can  exist  in  its  stag- 
nant and  sulphureous  waters.  Here  formerly  stood  the 
cities  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  which,  with  two  other 
cities  of  the  plain,  were  consumed  by  fire  from  heaven  : 
to  this  destruction,  there  are  numerous  allusions  in  the 
Scriptures. 

Beside  the  preceding  rivers  and  lakes,  the  Scriptures 
mention  several   Fountains   and    Wells:    of  these   the 


OF  THE  HOLY   LAND.  J  75 

most  remarkable  are  the  fountain,  or  pool,  of  Siloam,  and 
Jacob's  Well. 

SiLOAM  was  a  fountain  under  the  walls  of  Jerusalem, 
east,  between  the  city  and  the  brook  Kedron :  it  is 
supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  fountain  En-Rogel,  or 
the  Fuller's  Fountain.  (Josh,  xv.  7,  and  xviii.  16.  2 
Sam.  xvii.  17,  and  1  Kings  i.  9.)  "  The  spring  issues 
from  a  rock,  and  runs  in  a  silent  stream,  according  to  the 
testimony  of  Jeremiah." 

Jacob's  Well,  or  fountain,  is  situated  at  a  small  dis- 
tance, from  Sichem,  or  Shechem,  also  called  Sychar,  and 
at  present  Napolose  :  it  was  the  residence  of  Jacob  be- 
fore his  sons  slew  the  Shechemites.  It  has  been  visited 
by  pilgrims  of  all  ages,  but  especially  by  Christians,  to 
whom  it  has  become  an  object  of  veneration  from  the  me- 
morable discourse  of  our  Saviour  with  the  woman  of  Sa- 
maria.    (John  iv.  5 — 30.) 

In  our  own  time,  it  is  the  custom  for  the  oriental  wo- 
men, particularly  those  who  are  unmarried,  to  fetch  wa- 
ter from  the  wells,  in  the  mornings  and  evenings;  at  which 
times  they  go  forth  adorned  with  their  trinkets.  This 
will  account  for  Rebecca's  fetching  water,  (Gen.  xxiv. 
15,)  and  will  further  prove,  that  there  was  no  improprie- 
ty in  Abraham's  seja^ant  presenting  her  with  more  valua- 
ble jewels,  than  those  she  had  before  on  her  hands.  (Gen, 
xxiv.  22—47.) 

Mountains,  &c. 

Palestine  is  a  mountainous  country,  especially  that 
part  of  it,  which  is  situated  between  the  Mediterranean, 
or  Great  Sea,  and  the  river  Jordan.  The  principal 
Mountains,  not  already  mentioned,  are  those  of  Leba- 
non, Carmel,  Tabor,  the  mountains  of  Israel  and  of  Gilead. 

1.  Lehano7i,  by  the  Greeks  and  Latins  termed  Liba- 
nus,  is  a  long  chain  of  lime-stone  mountains,  extending 
from  the  neiglibourliood  of  Sidon  on  tlie  west,  to  the  vi- 
cinity of  Damascus  eastward,  and  forming  the  extreme 
northern  boundary  of  the  Holy  Land.  It  is  divided  into 
two  principal  ridges,  or  ranges  parallel  to  each  other,  the 
most  westerly  of  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  Liba- 
nus,  and  the  opposite,  or  eastern  ridge,  by  the  appella- 


176  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

tion  of  Anti-Libanus.  These  mountains  may  be  seen 
from  a  very  considerable  distance  ;  and  it  rarely  happens 
that  some  part  or  other  of  them,  is  not  covered  with  snow 
throughout  the  year.  They  are  by  no  means  barren,  but 
are  almost  all  well  cultivated  and  well  peopled  :  their 
summits  are,  in  many  parts,  level,  and  form  extensive 
plains,  in  which  are  sown  corn,  and  all  kinds  of  pulse. 
Tiiey  are  watered  by  numerous  springs,  rivulets,  and 
streams  of  excellent  water,  which  difllise  on  all  sides 
freshness  and  fertility,  even  in  the  most  elevated  regions. 
To  these  Solomon  has  a  beautiful  allusion.  (Songiv.  15.) 
Lebanon  was  anciently  celebrated  for  its  stately  cedars, 
which  are  now  less  numerous  than  in  former  times ;  they 
grow  among  the  snow  near  the  highest  part  of  the  moun- 
tain, and  are  remarkable,  as  well  for  their  age  and 
size,  as  for  the  frequent  allusions  made  to  them  in  the 
Scriptures.  (See  1  Kings  iv.  33.  Psalm  Ixxx.  10,  and 
xcii.  12,  &c.  &-C.) 

Anti-IAbajius,  or  Anti- Lebanon j  is  the  more  lofty  ridge 
of  the  two,  and  its  summit  is  clad  with  almost  perpetual 
snow,  which  was  carried  to  the  neighbouring  towns  for 
the  purpose  of  cooling  liquors  ;  (Prov.  xxv.  13,  and  per- 
haps Jer.  xviii.  14  ;)  a  practice  which  has  obtained  in 
the  east  to  the  present  day. 

2.  Mount  Carmel  is  a  range  of  hills,  about  fifteen 
hundred  feet  in  height,  and  extending  six  or  eight  miles 
nearly  north  and  south.  It  is  situated  about  ten  miles  to 
the  south  of  Acre,  or  Ptolemais,  on  the  shore  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea.  Its  summits  abound  with  oaks  and  other 
trees  ;  and  among  brambles,  wild  vines  and  olive  trees 
are  still  to  be  found.  On  the  side  next  the  sea  is  a  cave, 
to  which  some  commentators  have  supposed  that  the  j)ro- 
plict  Elijaii  desired  Ahab  to  bring  Baal's  prophets,  when 
celestial  fire  descended  on  his  sacrifice.  (I  Kings  xviii. 
19 — 40.)  There  was  another  mount  Carmel,  with  a  city 
of  the  same  name,  situated  in  the  tribe  Judah,  and  men- 
tioned in  Joshua  xv.  55.   1  Sam.  xxv.  2,  and  2  Sam  iii.  3. 

3.  Tahor,  or  Thabor,  is  a  mountain  oi'  a  conical  form, 
entirely  detached  from  any  neighbouring  mountain,  and 
sfinds  on  one  side  of  the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon  :  it  is 
entirely  covered  with  green  oaks,  and  other  trees,  shrubs, 
and  odoriferous  plants.     The  prosj)ects  from  this  nioun 


OF  THE  IJOLY  LAND.  177 

tain,  are  singularly  delightful  and  extensive  ;  and  on  its 
eastern  side  there  is  a  small  height,  which  by  ancient  tra- 
dition, is  supposed  to  have  been  the  scene  of  our  Lord's 
transfiguration.     (Matt.  xvii.  1 — 8.     Mark  ix.  2 — 9.) 

4.  The  Mountains  of  Israel,  also  called  the  moun- 
tains of  Ephraini,  were  situated  in  the  very  centre  of  the 
Holy  Land,  and  opposite  to  the  Mountains  of  Judah. 
The  soil  of  both  is  fertile,  excepting  those  ridges  of  the 
mountains  of  Israel,  which  look  towards  the  region  of  the 
Jordan,  and  which  are  both  rugged  and  difficult  of  ascent, 
and  also  with  the  exception  of  the  chain  extending  from 
the  Mount  of  Olives  near  Jerusalem  to  the  plain  of  Jeri- 
cho, which  has  always  afforded  lurking-places  to  robbers^ 
(Luke  X.  30.)  The  most  elevated  summit  of  this  ridge, 
which  appears  to  be  the  same  that  was  anciently  called 
the  rock  of  Rimmon,  (Judg.  xx.  45.  47,)  is  at  present 
known  by  the  name  of  Quarantania,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  scene  of  our  Saviour's  temptation.  (Matt^. 
iv.  8.)  It  is  described  by  Maundrel,  as  situated  in  a 
mountainous  desert,  and  being  a  most  miserably  dry  and 
barren  place,  consisting  of  high  rocky  mountains,  torn 
and  disordered,  as  if  the  earth  had  here  suffered  some 
great  convulsion.  The  Mountains  of  Ebal  (sometimes 
written  Gebal)  and  Gerizim  (Deut.  xi.  29,  xxvii.  4.  12» 
Josh.  viii.  30 — 35,)  are  situate,  the  former  to  the  north, 
and  the  latter  to  the  south  of  Sichem  or  Napolose,  whose 
streets  run  parallel  to  the  latter  mountain,  which  over- 
looks the  town.  In  the  mountains  of  Judah,  there  are 
numerous  caves,  some  of  a  considerable  size  :  the  most 
remarkable  of  these  is  the  cave  of  Adullam,  mentioned 
in  1  Sam.  xxii.  1,  2. 

5.  The  Mountains  of  Gilead  are  situated  beyond 
the  Jordan,  and  extend  from  Hermon  southward  to  Ara- 
bia Petraea.  The  northern  part  of  them,  known  by  the 
name  of  Bashan,  was  celebrated  for  its  stately  oaks,  and 
numerous  herds  of  cattle  pastured  there,  to  which  there 
are  manv  allusions  in  the  Scriptures.  (See,  among  other 
passages,  Deut.  xxxii.  14.  Psalm  xxii.  12,  and  Ixviii.  15, 
Isa.  ii.  13.  Ezek.  xxxix.  18.  Amos  iv.  1.)  The  middle 
part,  in  a  stricter  sense,  was  termed  Gilead;  and  in  the 
southern  part,  beyond  Jordan,  were  the  Mountains  of 
Ahariniy  the  northern  limits  of  the  territory  of  Moab, 


178  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

which  are  conjectured  to  have  derived  their  name  from 
the  passes  between  the  hills  of  which  they  were  formed. 
Tlie  most  eminent  among  these  are  Pisgah  and  Neho, 
whicii  form  a  continued  chain,  and  command  a  view  of 
the  wliole  land  of  Canaan.  (Deut.  iii.  27,  xxxii.  48 — 50, 
xxxiv.  1,  2,  3.)  From  Mount  Nebo,  Moses  surveyed  the 
promised  land,  before  he  was  gathered  to  his  jyeople, 
(Numb,  xxvii.  12,  13.)  The  Hebrews  frequently  give 
the  epitliet  of  everlasting  to  their  mountains,  because  they 
are  as  old  as  the  earth  itself.  See,  among  other  instances, 
Gen.  xlix.  26,  and  Deut.  xxxiii.  15. 

The  Mountains  of  Palestine  were  anciently  places  of 
refuge  to  the  inhabitants  when  defeated  in  war,  (Gen.  xiv. 
10,)  and  modern  travellers  assure  us  that  they  are  still  re- 
sorted to  for  tlie  purpose  of  shelter.  The  rocky  summits 
found  on  many  of  tliem,  appear  to  have  been  not  unfre- 
quently  employed  as  altars,  on  which  sacrifices  were  offer- 
ed lo  Jehovah;  (Judg.  vi.  19 — 21,  and  xiii.  15 — 20;)  al- 
thouirh  they  were  afterwards  converted  into  places  fur  idol 
worsiiip,  for  which  the  prophets  Isaiah  (Ivii.  7,)  and  fc^ze- 
kiel  (xviii.  6,)  severely  reprove  their  degenerate  country- 
men. And  as  many  of  the  mountains  of  Palestine  were 
situated  in  desert  places,  the  shadow  they  project  has 
furnislied  the  prophet  Isaiah  with  a  pleasing  image  of  the 
security  that  sliall  be  enjoyed  under  the  kingdom  of 
Messiah,  (xxxii.  2.) 

Valleys,  Plal\s,  d:c. 

Numerous  Valleys  are  mentioned  in  Scripture  :  the 
three  most  memorable  of  these  are, 

1.  Tlie  Vale  of  Siddim,  in  which  Abraham  discom- 
fitted  Cliedorlaomer,  and  his  confederate  emirs,  or  kings, 
Gen.  xiv.  2—10. 

2.  The  Valley  of  Elah,  which  lies  about  three  miles 
from  Bethlehem,  on  the  road  to  Jafia  :  it  is  celebrated  as 
the  spot  where  David  defi^ated  and  slew  (ioliath.  (1  Sara, 
xvii.)  "  Nothing  has  ever  occurred  to  alter  the  appear- 
ance of  the  country.  The  very  brook  whence  David 
chose  him  Jive  smooth  stones  has  been  noticed  by  many  a 
thirsty  piltrrim,  journeying  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem  ;  all 
of  whom  must  pass  it  in  their  way." 

3.  The  narrow  Valley  of  Hinnom  lies  at  the  foot  of 


OF  THE  HOLY  LAND.  179 

Mount  Sion,  and  is  memorable  for  the  inhuman  and  bar- 
barous, as  well  as  idolatrous  worship,  here  paid  to  Moloch; 
to  which  idol  parents  sacrificed  their  smiling  offspring,  by 
making  them  pass  through  the  fire.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  10, 
2  Chron.  xxviii.  3.)  To  drown  the  lamentable  shrieks 
of  the  children  thus  immolated,  musical  instruments  (in 
Hebrew  termed  Tuph)  were  played ;  whence  the  spot 
where  the  victims  were  burnt,  was  called  Tophet.  From 
the  same  circumstance,  Ge-Hinnom  (which  in  Hebrew 
denotes  the  Valley  of  Hinnom^  and  from  which  the  Greek 
word  Tdvva.  Gehenna^  is  derived,)  is  sometimes  used  to 
denote  hell,  or  hell-fire. 

The  country  of  Judaea,  being  mountainous  and  rocky, 
is  full  of  Caverns  ;  to  which  the  inhabitants  w^ere  accus- 
tomed to  flee  for  shelter  from  the  incursions  of  their  en- 
emies. (Judg.  vi.  2.  1  Sam.  xiii.  6,  xiv.  11.)  Some  of 
these  caves  were  very  capacious  :  that  of  Engedi  was  so 
large,  that  David  and  six  hundred  men,  concealed  them- 
selves in  its  sides  ;  and  Saul  entered  the  mouth  of  the  cave 
without  perceiving  that  any  one  was  there. 

Numerous  fertile  and  level  tracts,  are  mentioned  in  the 
sacred  volume,  under  the  title  of  Plains.  Three  of  these 
are  particularly  worthy  of  notice,  viz. : 

1.  The  Plain  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  which 
reached  from  the  river  of  Egypt  to  Mount  Carmel. 

2.  The  Tract  between  Gaza  and  Joppa,  was  simply 
called  the  Plain  :  in  this  stood  the  five  principal  cities  of 
the  Philistine  satrapies,  Ascalon,  Gath,  Gaza,  Ekron,  or 
Accaron,  and  Azotus,  or  Ashdod. 

3.  The  Plain  of  Jezreel,  or  Esdraelon,  also  called  the 
Great  Plain,  (the  Armageddon  of  the  Apocalypse  :)  it 
extends  from  Mount  Carmel  and  the  Mediterranean,  to  the 
place  where  the  Jordan  issues  from  the  Sea  of  Tiberias, 
through  the  middle  of  the  Holy  Land.  This  plain  is  en- 
closed on  all  sides  by  mountains,  and  is  cultivated. 

Wildernesses,  or  Deserts. 

Frequent  mention  is  made  in  the  Scriptures  of  Wil- 
dernesses, OR  Deserts,  by  which  we  usually,  though 
erroneously,  understand  desolate  places,  equally  void  of 
cities  and  inhabitants:  for  the  Hebrews  gave  the  name  of 


180 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 


desert,  or  wilderness,  to  all  places  that  were  not  cultivatetl, 
but  which  were  chiefly  appropriated  to  the  feeding  of  cat- 
tle, and  in  many  of  them  trees  and  siirubs  grew  wild. 
Some  of  them  are  niouuiainous  and  well  watered,  while 
otliers  are  sterile  sandy  plains,  either  destitute  of  water, 
or  aflbrding  a  very  scanty  supply  from  the  few  springs 
that  are  occasionally  to  be  found  in  them ;  yet  even  these 
afford  a  grateful,  though  meagre  pasturage  to  camels,  goats, 
and  sheep.  In  this  latter  description  of  deserts,  it  is  that 
the  weary  traveller  is  mocked  by  the  distant  appearance 
of  white  vapours,  which  are  not  unlike  those  white  mists 
we  often  see  hovering  over  the  surface  of  a  river  in  a  sum- 
mer evening,  after  a  hot  day.  Wlien  beheld  at  a  distance, 
they  resemble  an  expanded  lake  ;  but,  upon  a  nearer  ap- 
proach, the  tiiirsty  traveller  perceives  the  deception.  To 
this  phenomejion  the  prophet  Isaiah  alludes,  (xxxv.  7,) 
where,  predicting  the  blessings  of  the  Redeemer's  king- 
dom, he  says.  The  glowing  sand  shall  become  a  pool,  and 
the  thirsty  soil  bubbling  springs. 

The  deserts  of  the  Hebrews  frequently  derived  their 
appellations,  from  the  places  to  which  they  were  contigu- 
ous. The  most  celebrated  is  the  Great  Desert,  called  the 
Wilderness,  or  Desert  of  Judah.  (Psal.  Ixiii.  title.)  The 
desert  of  Judflea,  in  which  John  the  Baptist  abode  till 
the  day  of  his  showing  unto  Israel,  (Luke  i.  80,)  and  where 
he  first  taught  his  countrymen,  (Matt.  iii.  1.  Mark  i.  4. 
John  x.  39,)  was  a  mountainous,  wooded,  and  thinly  in- 
habit(!d  tract  of  country,  but  abounding  in  pastures  ;  it 
was  situated  adjacent  to  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the  River 
Jordan.  In  the  time  of  Joshua  it  had  six  cities,  with 
their  villages.  (Josh.  xv.  61,  62.) 

This  country  also  produced  some  Woods,  or  Forests 
mentioned  in  holy  writ,  such  as  those  of  Hareth  in  the 
trihe  of  Judah,  to  which  David  withdrew  from  Saul; 
(1  Sam.  xxii.  5;)  of  Ephraim,  where  Absalom  received 
the  due  reward  of  his  unnatural  rebellion  (2  Sam.  xviii. 
6 — \)\)  tiiat  o(  Lebanon,  where  Solomon  erected  a  sump- 
tuous palace  (1  Kings  vii.  2  ;)  the  forest  of  Bethel,  sup- 
posed to  have  stood  near  the  city  of  that  name  ;  (2  Kings 
ii.  24  ;)  and  the  Forest  of  Oaks,  on  the  hills  of  Bashan. 
(Zech.  xi.  2.) 


ii 


OF  THE  HOLY  LAND.  IQl 

The  Fertility  of  the  soil  of  the  Holy  Land,  so  often 
mentioned  in  the  sacred  writings,  (and  especially  in  Deut. 
viii.  7—9,  xi.  10—12.  Gen.  xxvi.  12.  and  Matt.  xiii.  8,) 
is  confirmed  by  the  united  testimonies  of  ancient  writers, 
as  well  as  by  all  modern  travellers.  We  are  assured  that 
under  a  wise  and  beneficent  government,  the  produce  of 
the  Holy  Land,  would  exceed  all  calculation.  Its  peren- 
nial harvest ;  the  salubrity  of  its  air  ;  its  limpid  springs  ; 
its  rivers,  lakes,  and  matchless  plains  ;  its  hills  and  vales 
— all  these,  added  to  the  serenity  of  its  climate,  prove  this 
land  to  be  indeed  "a  field  which  the  Lord  hath  blessed:" 
(Gen.  xxvii.  28 :)  "  God  hath  given  it  of  the  dew  of  hea- 
ven, and  the  fatness  of  the  earth,  and  plenty  of  corn  and 
wine." 

Such  being  the  state  of  the  Holy  Land,  at  east  of  that 
part  of  it  which  is  properly  cultivated,  we  can  readily  ac- 
count for  the  vast  population  it  anciently  supported.  Its 
present  forlorn  condition  is  satisfactorily  explained  by  the 
depredations  and  vicissitudes  to  which  it  has  been  exposed 
in  every  age :  and  so  far  is  this  from  contradicting  the  as- 
sertions of  the  sacred  writings,  that  it  confirms  their  au- 
thority ;  for,  in  the  event  of  the  Israelites  proving  unfaith- 
ful to  their  covenant  engagements  with  Jehovah,  all  these 
*  judgments  were  predicted,  and  denounced  against  them; 
(Lev.  xxvi.  32.  Deut.  xxix.  22.  et  seq.;)  and  the  exact 
accomplishment  of  these  prophecies  affords  a  permanent 
comment  on  the  declaration  of  the  royal  psalmist,  that 
God  "  turneth  a  fruitful  land  into  barrenness  for  the  wick- 
edness of  them  that  dwell  therein."  (Psal.  cvii.  34.) 


iQ 


182 


BOOK  n.— POLITICAL  ANTIQUITIES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


DIFFERBNT   FORMS   OF  GOVERNMENT  PROM   THE   PATRIARCHAL   TIMES,    TO   THE 
BABYLONIAN    CAPTIVITY. 

I.  The  earliest  Form  op  Government  of  which  we 
read  in  Scripture,  was  the  Patriarchal  ;  or  that  exerci- 
sed by  the  heads  of  families  over  their  households,  with' 
out  being  responsible  to  any  superior  power.  Such  wai 
that  exercised  by  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  The  pa- 
triarchal power,  was  a  sovereign  dominion,  so  that  pa- 
rents may  be  considered  as  the  first  kings,  and  children 
the  first  subjects :  they  had  the  power  of  life  and  death, 
of  disinheriting  their  children,  or  of  dismissing  them  from 
the  paternal  home  without  assigning  any  reason. 

II.  On  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  the  land  of 
their  oppressors,  under  the  guidance  of  Moses,  Jehovah 
was  pleased  to  institute  a  new  form  of  government,  which 
has  been  rightly  termed  a  Theocracy  ;  the  supreme  le- 
gislative power  being  exclusively  vested  in  God,  or  his 
oracle,  who  alone  could  enact,  or  repeal  laws.  Hence 
the  judges,  and  afterwards  the  kings,  were  merely  tempo- 
ral viceroys,  or  the  first  magistrates  in  the  state  :  their 
ofiice  was,  to  command  the  army  in  war,  to  summon  and 
preside  in  the  senate,  or  council  of  princes  and  elders, 
and  in  the  general  assembly  of  the  congregation  of  Israel, 
and  to  propose  public  matters  to  the  deliberation  of  the 
former,  and  to  the  ratification  of  the  latter.  During  the 
life  of  Moses,  the  chief  magistracy  was  lodged  in  liim  . 
but,  his  strength  being  inadequate  to  determine  all  matters 
of  controversy  between  so  numerous  a  nation,  a  council 
of  seventy  princes,  or  elders  was  instituted,  at  his  request, 
to  assist  him  with  their  advice,  and  to  lighten  the  burden 
of  governmeni.  (Exod.  xviii.  13 — 26.) 


DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  GOVERNMENT.  183 

III.  On  the  death  of  Moses,  the  command  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  was  confided  to  Joshua,  who  had  been  his 
minister,  (Exod.  xxiv.  13.  Josh.  i.  1,)  and  under  whom 
the  land  of  Canaan  was  subdued,  and  divided  agreeably 
to  the  divine  injunctions  :  but,  his  office  ceasing  with  his 
life,  the  government  of  Israel  was  committed  to  certain 
supreme  magistrates,  termed  Judges.  Their  dignity  was 
for  life;  but  their  office  was  not  hereditary,  neither  was 
their  succession  constant.  Their  authority  was  not  infe- 
rior to  that  of  kings  :  it  extended  to  peace  and  war.  They 
decided  causes  without  appeal ;  but  they  had  no  power  to 
enact  new  laws,  or  to  impose  new  burdens  upon  the  peo- 
ple. They  were  protectors  of  the  laws,  defenders  of  re- 
ligion, and  avengers  of  crimes,  particularly  of  idolatry, 
which  was  high  treason  against  Jehovah,  their  Sove- 
reign. 

IV.  At  length,  the  Israelites,  weary  of  having  God  for 
their  sovereign,  desired  a  king  to  be  set  over  them.  (1  Sam. 
viii.  5.)  Such  a  change  in  their  government  was  fore- 
seen by  Moses,  who  accordingly  prescribed  certain  laws 
for  the  direction  of  their  future  sovereigns,  which  are  re- 
lated in  Deut.  xvii.  14 — 20. 

Though  the  authority  of  the  kings  w^as  in  some  re- 
spects limited,  by  stipulation,  yet  they  exercised  very  am- 
ple powers.  They  had  the  right  of  making  peace,  or 
war,  and  of  life  and  death  ;  and  they  administered  justice, 
either  in  person,  or  by  their  judges.  And  though  they 
exercised  great  power  in  reforming  ecclesiastical  abuses, 
yet  this  power  was  enjoyed  by  them,  not  as  absolute  sove- 
reigns, in  their  own  right.  They  were  merely  the  vice- 
roys of  Jehovah,  who  was  the  sole  legislator  of  Israel : 
and,  therefore,  as  the  kings  could  neither  enact  a  new 
law,  nor  repeal  an  old  one,  the  government  continued  to 
be  a  theocracy,  ?iiS  well  under  their  permanent  administra- 
tion, as  we  have  seen  that  it  was  under  the  occasional  ad- 
ministration of  the  judges.  They  were  inaugurated  to 
their  high  office  with  great  pomp,  and  were  arrayed  in 
royal  apparel,  with  a  crown  and  sceptre.  The  majesty  of 
royalty  was  studiously  maintained.  It  was  accounted 
the  highest  possible  honour  to  be  admitted  into  the  royal 
presence,  and  above  all  to  sit  down  in  his  presence.  The 
knowledge  of  this  circumstance  illustrates  several  passa- 


JQ4  DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  GOVERNMENT 

ges  of  Scripture,  particularly  Luke  i.  19.  Matt.  v.  8, 
xviii.  10,  XX.  20 — 23.  After  the  establishment  of  royal ty 
among  the  Jews,  it  appears  to  have  been  a  maxim  in  iheir 
law,  that  the  king's  person  ivas  inviolable,  even  though  he 
might  be  tyrannical  and  unjust ;  (1  Sam.  xxiv.  5 — 8  ;)  a 
maxim  which  is  necessary  not  only  to  the  security  of  the 
king,  but  also  to  the  welfare  of  the  subject.  On  this 
principle,  the  Amalekite,  who  told  David  the  improbable 
and  untrue  story  of  his  having  put  the  mortally  wounded 
Saul  to  death,  that  he  might  not  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
Philistines,  was,  merely  on  this,  his  own  statement,  or- 
dered by  David  to  be  instantly  despatched,  because  he  had 
laid  his  hand  on  the  Lord's  Anointed.  (2  Sam.  i.  14.) 

The  eastern  monarchs  were  never  approached  but  with 
presents  of  some  kind  or  other,  according  to  the  ability 
of  the  individuals,  who  accompanied  them  with  expres- 
sions of  the  profoundest  reverence,  prostrating  themselves 
to  the  ground  ;  and  the  same  practice  continues  to  this 
day.  Thus  Jacob  instructed  his  sons  to  carry  a  present 
to  Joseph,  when  ^hey  went  to  buy  food  of  him,  as  gover- 
nor of  Egypt.  (Gen.  xliii.  11.  26.)  In  like  manner,  the 
magi,  who  came  from  the  east  to  adore  Jesus  Christ,  as 
king  of  the  Jews,  brought  him  presents  of  gold,  frankin- 
cense, and  myrrh.  (Matt.  ii.  11.)  Allusions  to  this  prac- 
tice occur  in  Gen.  xxxii.  13.  1  Kings  x.  2.  10.  25.  2 
Kings  V.  5  ;  see  also  1  Sam.  ix.  7,  and  2  Kings  viii.  8. 
The  prostrations  were  made,  with  every  demonstration 
of  reverence,  to  the  ground.  See  an  instance  in  1  Sam. 
xxiv.  8. 

Further,  whenever  the  oriental  sovereigns  go  abroad, 
they  are  uniformly  attended  by  a  numerous  and  splendid 
retinue  :  the  Hebrew  kings,  and  their  sons,  either  rode  on 
asses,  or  mules,  (2  Sam.  xiii.  29.  1  Kings  i.  33.  38,)  or 
in  chariots,  (1  Kings  i.  5.  2  Kings  ix.  21,  x.  15,)  preceded 
or  accompanied  by  their  royal  guards,  (who,  in  2  Sam. 
Tiii.  18,  and  xv.  18,  are  termed  Cherethiies  and  Pele- 
ihites;)  as  the  oriental  sovereigns  are  to  this  day.  And 
whenever  the  Asiatic  monarchs  entered  upon  an  expedi- 
tion, or  took  a  journey  through  desert  and  untravelled 
countries,  they  sent  harbingers  before  them,  to  prepare  all 
things  for  their  passage,  and  pioneers  to  open  the  passes, 
level  the  ways,  and  remove  all  impediments.     To  this 


FIIOM  THE  PATRIARCHIAL  TIMES,  ETC.  JQS 

practice  there  are  allusions  in  Isa.  xl.  3,  and  Matt.  iii.  3. 

The  revenues  of  the  kings  arose  from  various  sources, 
viz.  :  1.  Voluntary  offerings,  which  were  made  to  them, 
conformably  to  the  oriental  custom.  (1  Sam.  x.  27,  xvi. 
20.)  2.  The  Produce  of  the  Royal  Flocks,  (1  Sam.  xxi. 
7.  2  Sam.  xiii.  23.  2  Chron.  xxxii.  28,  29,)  and  also  of 
the  royal  demesnes,  over  which  certain  officers  were  ap- 
pointed. 3.  The  Tenth  Part  of  all  the  produce  of  the 
fields  and  vineyards,  the  collection  and  management  of 
which  seem  to  have  been  confided  to  the  officers  mention- 
ed in  1  Kings  iv.  7,  and  in  1  Chron.  xxvii.  25.  It  is  also 
probable  from  1  Kings  x.  14,  that  the  Israelites  likewise 
paid  a  tax  in  money.  4.  A  portion  of  the  spoil  of  con- 
quered nations,  (2  Sam.  viii.)  upon  whom  tributes  or  im- 
posts were  also  laid  ;  (1  Kings  iv.  21.  Psal.  Ixxii.  10,  com- 
pared with  1  Chron.  xxvii.  25 — 31 ;)  and,  lastly,  5.  The  Cus- 
toms paid  to  Solomon,  by  the  foreign  merchants  who  passed 
through  his  dominions,  (1  Kings  x.  15,)  afforded  a  consi- 
derable revenue  to  that  monarch  :  who,  as  the  Mosaic 
laws  did  not  encourage  foreign  commerce,  carried  on  a 
very  extensive  and  lucrative  trade,  (1  Kings  x.  22,)  parti- 
cularly in  Egyptian  horses,  and  the  byssus,  or  fine  linen 
of  Egypt.  (1  Kings  x.  28,29.) 

Besides  the  kings,  there  were  some  inferior  magistrates, 
who,  though  their  origin  may  be  traced  to  the  time  of 
Moses,  continued  to  retain  some  authority,  after  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  monarchy.  Of  this  description  were,  1. 
the  Heads,  or  Princes  of  Tribes,  who  appear  to  have 
watched  over  the  interest  of  each  tribe  ;  they  were  twelve 
in  number ;  and,  2.  The  Heads  of  Families,  who  are 
sometimes  called  Heads  of  Houses  of  Fathers,  and  some- 
times simply  heads.  These  are  likewise  the  same  persons 
who,  in  Josh,  xxiii.  2,  and  xxiv.  1,  are  called  Elders. 
(Compare  also  Deut.  xix.  12,  and  xxi.  1 — 9.)  It  does  not 
appear  in  what  manner  these  heads,  or  elders  of  families, 
were  chosen,  when  any  of  them  died.  The  princes  of 
tribes  do  not  seem  to  have  ceased  with  the  commence- 
ment, at  least,  of  the  monarchy :  from  1  Chron.  xvii. 
16 — 22,  it  is  evident  that  they  subsisted  in  the  time  of 
David  ;  and  they  must  have  proved  a  very  considerable 
restraint  upon  the  power  of  the  king. 

V.  The  kinofdom  which  h«d  been  founded  by  Saul, and 
16* 


186  POLITICAL  STATE  OP  THE  JEWS 

carried  to  its  highest  pitch  of  grandeur  and  power  by 
David  and  Solomon,  subsisted  entire  for  the  space  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  years  ;  until  Rehoboam,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Solomon,  refused  to  mitigate  the  burdens  of 
his  subjects,  when  a  division  of  the  twelve  tribes  took 
place  ;  ten  of  which,  adhering  to  Jeroboam,  formed  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  while  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benja- 
min, continuing  faithful  in  their  allegiance  to  Rehoboam, 
constituted  the  kmgdom  of  Judah.  The  Kingdom  of  Is- 
rael subsisted  under  various  sovereigns,  during  a  period 
of  264,  or  271  years,  according  to  some  chronologers ;  its 
metropolis,  Samaria,  being  captured  by  Shalmaneser,  king 
of  Assyria,  b.  c.  717,  or  719,  after  a  siege  of  three  years  ; 
of  the  Israelites,  whose  numbers  had  been  reduced  by 
immense  and  repeated  slaughters,  some  of  the  lower  sort 
were  suffered  to  remain  in  their  native  country ;  but  the 
nobles,  and  all  the  more  opulent  persons,  were  carried  into 
captivity  beyond  the  Euphrates.  The  Kingdom  of  Judah 
continued  388,  or  according  to  some  chronologers,  404 
years;  Jerusalem,  its  capital,  being  taken,  the  temple 
burnt,  and  its  sovereign,  Zedekiah,  being  carried  captive 
to  Babylon,  by  Nebuchadnezzar  ;  the  rest  of  his  subjects 
(with  the  exception  of  the  poorer  classes,  who  were  left  it. 
Judffia)  were  likewise  carried  into  captivity,  beyond  the 
Euphrates,  where  they,  and  their  posterity,  remained 
seventy  years,  agreeably  to  the  divine  predictions. 


CHAPTER  II. 

political  state  op  thb  jews,  from  their  return   from  the  babylonish 
Captivity,  to  the  subversion  of  their  civil  and  ecclesiastical  polity. 

I.  Political  State  of  the  Jews  under  the  Maccabees 
and  the  sovereigns  of  the  Herodian  Family. 

After  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon,  they  obey- 
ed the  High  Priests,,  from  whom  the  supreme  authority 
subsequently  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Maccabcan 
Princes.  Mattathias  m'hs  the  first  of  these  princes  ;  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  three  valiant  sons,  Judas,  Jonathan, 
and  Simon,  the  last  of  whom  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
John  Hyroanus.     The  name  Maccabees  is  supposed  to 


AFTER  THEIR  RETURN  FROM  CAPTIVITY.       187 

have  been  derived  from  the  four  letters,  M.  C.  B.  I.  which 
are  the  initial  letters  of  the  Hebrew  words  Mi  Chamoka 
Baelim  Jehovah,  that  is,  who  among  the  gods  is  like  unto 
thee,  O  Jehovah?  (Exod.  xv.  11,)  which  letters  were  dis- 
played on  their  standards.  This  illustrious  house,  whose 
princes  united  the  regal  and  pontifical  dignity  in  their 
own  persons,  administered  the  affairs  of  the  Jews,  during 
a  period  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  years  ;  until 
disputes  arising  between  Hyrcanus  II.  and  his  brother, 
Aristobulus,  the  latter  was  defeated  by  the  Romans,  under 
Pompey,  who  captured  Jerusalem,  and  reduced  Judaea  to 
a  tributary  province  of  the  republic,  (b.  c.  59.) 

Though  Pompey  continued  Hyrcanus  in  the  high  priest- 
hood, he  bestowed  the  government  of  Judaea  on  Antipater, 
an  Idumaean  by  birth,  who  was  a  Jewish  proselyte,  and 
the  father  of  Herod,  surnamed  the  Great,  who  was  sub- 
sequently king  of  the  Jews.  Antipater  divided  Judaea 
between  his  two  sons,  Phasael  and  Horod,  giving  to  the 
former  the  government  of  Jerusalem,  and  to  the  latter  the 
province  of  Galilee  ;  which  being  at  that  time  greatly  in- 
fested with  robbers,  Herod  signalized  his  courage  by  dis- 
persing them,  and  shortly  after  attacked  Antigonus,  the 
competitor  of  Hyrcanus  in  the  priesthood,  who  was  sup- 
ported by  the  Tyrians.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Panhians 
having  invaded  Judaea,  and  carried  into  captivity  Hyrca- 
nus, the  high  priest,  and  Phasael,  the  brother  of  Herod; 
the  latter  fled  to  Rome,  where  Mark  Antony,  with  the 
consent  of  the  senate,  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  king 
of  Judsea.  By  the  aid  of  the  Roman  arms,  Herod,  a 
sanguinary  and  crafty  prince,  kept  possession  of  his  dig- 
nity ;  and  after  three  years  of  sanguinary  and  intestine 
war  with  the  partizans  of  Antigonus,  he  was  confirmed 
in  his  kingdom  by  Augustus. 

Herod,  misnamed  the  Great,  by  his  will  divided  his  do- 
minions among  his  three  sons,  Archelaus,  Herod  Antipas, 
and  Herod  Philip. 

To  Archelaus  he  assigned  Judaea,  Samaria,  and  Idu- 
m?ea,  with  the  regal  dignity,  subject  to  the  approbation  of 
Augustus,  who  ratified  his  will  as  it  respected  the  territo- 
rial division,  hut  conferred  on  Archelaus  the  title  of  £th- 
narch,  or  chief  of  the  nation,  with  a  promise  of  the  regal 
dignity,  if  he  should  prove  himself  worthy  of  it.     His  sub- 


188  POLITICAL  STATE  OF  THE  JEWS 

sequent  reign  was  turbulent ;  and,  after  repeated  com- 
plaints against  iiis  tyranny  and  nial-administration,  he  was 
deposed  and  banished  by  Augustus,  and  his  territories  were 
annexed  to  the  Roman  province  of  Syria. 

Herod  Antipas,  (or  Antipater,)  another  of  Herod's  sons, 
received  from  his  father  the  district  of  Galilee  and  Peroea, 
with  tlie  title  of  Tetrarch.  He  is  described  by  Joscphus 
as  a  crafty  and  incestuous  prince,  with  which  character  the 
narratives  of  the  evangelists  coincide  ;  for,  having  desert- 
ed his  wife,  the  daughter  of  xA.retas  king  of  Arabia,  he  for- 
cibly took  away  and  married  Herodias  the  wife  of  his 
brother  Herod  Philip,  a  proud  and  cruel  woman,  to  gra- 
tify whom  he  caused  John  the  Baptist  to  be  beheaded, 
(Matt.  xiv.  3.  Mark  vi.  17.  Luke  iii.  19,)  who  had 
provoked  her  vengeance  by  his  faithful  reproof  of  their 
incestuous  nuptials.  Some  years  afterwards,  Herod  as- 
piring to  the  regal  dignity  in  Judaea,  was  banished  together 
with  his  wife,  first  to  Lyons,  in  Gaul,  and  thence  into  Spain. 

Philip,  tetrarcli  of  Trachonitis,  Gaulonitis,  and  Bata- 
nsea,  is  mentioned  but  once  in  the  New  Testament,  (Luke 
iii.  1 :)  on  his  decease  without  issue,  after  a  reign  of  thirty- 
seven  years,  his  territories  were  annexed  to  the  province 
of  Syria. 

Agrippa,  or  Herod  Agrippa,  was  the  son  of  Aristobulus, 
and  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  sustained  various 
reverses  of  fortune  previously  to  his  attaining  the  royal 
dignity.  He  governed  his  dominions  much  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  his  subjects,  (for  whose  gratification  he  put  to 
death  the  apostle  James,  and  meditated  that  of  St.  Pelcr, 
M'ho  was  miraculously  delivered.  Acts  xii.  2 — 17  ;)  but 
being  inflated  with  pride  on  account  of  his  increasing 
power  and  grandeur,  he  was  struck  with  a  noisome  and 
painful  disease,  of  which  lie  died  at  C<esarea  in  the  man- 
ner related  by  St.  Luke.  (Acts  xii.  21. — 23.) 

AcJuipPA  junior,  was  the  son  of  the  preceding  Herod 
Agrippa  :  being  only  seventeen  years  of  age  at  the  time 
of  his  father's  deatii,  he  was  judged  to  be  unequal  to  the 
task  of  governing  the  whole  of  his  dominions.  These 
were  again  placed  under  the  direction  of  a  Roman  procu- 
rator or  governor,  and  Agrippa  was  first  king  of  (-halcis, 
and  afterwards  of  Batan^va,  Trachonitis,  and  Abilene,  to 
which  other  territories  were  subsequently  added.     It  was 


AFTER  THEIR  RETURN  FROM  CAPTIVITY.  'IgQ 

before  this  Agrippa  and  his  two  sisters,  Bernice  and  Dru- 
silla  the  wife  of  the  Roman  governor  Felix,  that  St.  Paul 
delivered  his  masterly  defence.     (Acts  xxvi.) 

II.  Political  State  of  the  Jews  under  the  Roman  Pro- 
curators. 

The  Jewish  kingdom,  which  the  Romans  had  created 
in  favour  of  Herod  the  Great,  was  of  short  duration  ;  ex- 
piring on  his  death,  by  his  division  of  his  territories,  and 
by  the  dominions  of  Archelaus,  (which  comprised  Sama- 
ria, Judaea,  and  Idumaea,)  being  reduced  to  a  Roman 
province,  annexed  to  Syria,  and  governed  by  the  Roman 
procurators.  These  officers  not  only  had  the  charge  of 
collecting  the  imperial  revenues,  but  also  had  the  power 
of  life  and  death  in  capital  causes  ;  and  on  account  of 
their  high  dignity  they  are  sometimes  called  Governors. 
Though  the  Jews  did  not  enjoy  the  power  of  life  and 
death,  yet  they  continued  to  possess  a  large  share  of  civil 
and  religious  liberty  ;  and  lived  pretty  much  after  their 
own  laws.  Three  of  these  procurators  are  mentioned  in 
the  New  Testament,  viz. :  Pilate,  Felix,  and  Festus. 

1.  Pontius  Pilate  was  sent  to  govern  Jud.nea,  a.  d.  26 
or  27.  He  was  a  cruel  and  unjust  governor  ;  and  dread- 
ing the  extreme  jealousy  and  suspicion  of  Tiberius,  he  de- 
livered up  the  Redeemer  to  be  crucified,  contrary  to  the 
conviction  of  his  better  judgment,  and  in  the  vain  hope 
of  conciliating  the  Jews  whom  he  had  oppressed.  After 
he  had  held  his  office  for  ten  years,  having  caused  a  num- 
ber of  innocent  Samaritans  to  be  put  to  death,  that  inju- 
red people  sent  an  embassy  to  Vitellius,  proconsul  of  Sy- 
ria :  by  whom  he  was  ordered  to  Rome,  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  his  mal-administration  to  the  emperor.  But  Ti- 
berius being  dead  before  he  arrived  there,  his  successor, 
Caligula,  banished  him  to  Gaul:  where  he  is  said  to  have 
committed  suicide,  about  the  year  of  Christ  41. 

2.  On  the  death  of  king  Herod  Agrippa,  Judaea  being 
again  reduced  to  a  Roman  province,  the  government  of  it 
was  confided  to  Antonius  Felix  :  he  liberated  that 
country  from  banditti  and  impostors  ;  (the  very  worthy 
deeds  alluded  to  by  Tertullus,  Acts  xxiv.  2 ;)  but  he  was 
in  other  respects  a  cruel  and  avaricious  governor,  inconti- 
nent, intemperate,  and  unjust.  So  oppressive  at  length 
did  his  administration  become,  that  the  Jews  accused  him 


190  POLITICAL  STATE  OF  THE  JEWS,  ETQ 

before  Nero,  and  lie  with  difficulty  escaped  condign  pun- 
ishment. His  wife,  Drusilla,  (mentioned  Acts  x\\v.  24,) 
was  the  sister  of  Agrippa  junior,  and  had  been  married  to 
Azizus  king  of  the  Emesenes :  Felix,  having  fallen  despe- 
rately in  love  with  her,  persuaded  her  to  abandon  her  le- 
gitimate husband  and  live  with  him.  The  knowledge  of 
these  circumstances  materially  illustrates  Acts  xxiv.  25, 
and  shows  with  what  singular  propriety  St.  Paul  reasoned 
of  righteousness,  temperance,  and  a  judgment  to  come. 
On  the  resignation  of  Felix,  the  government  of  Judsea 
was  committed  to 

3.  Fortius  Festus,  before  whom  Paul  defended  him- 
self against  the  accusations  of  the  Jews,  (Acts  xxv,)  and 
appealed  from  his  tribunal  to  that  of  Caesar.  Finding  his 
province  overrun  with  robbers  and  murderers,  Ftstus 
strenuously  exerted  himself  in  suppressing  their  outrages. 
He  died  in  Jud<ea  about  the  year  62. 

The  situation  of  the  Jews  under  the  two  last-mentioned 
procurators  was  truly  deplorable.  Distracted  by  tumults, 
excited  on  various  occasions,  their  country  was  overrun 
with  robbers,  that  plundered  all  the  villages  whose  inhab- 
itants refused  to  listen  to  their  persuasions,  to  shake  off 
the  Roman  yoke.  Justice  was  sold  to  the  highest  bidder; 
and  even  the  sacred  office  of  high  priest,  was  exposed 
to  sale.  But,  of  all  the  procurators,  no  one  abused  his 
power  more  than  Gessius  Florus,  a  cruel  and  sanguinary 
governor,  and  so  extremely  avaricious,  tlrat  he  shared 
with  the  robbers  in  their  booty,  and  allowed  them  to  fol- 
low their  nefarious  practices  with  impunity.  Hence,  con- 
siderable numbers  of  the  wretched  Jews,  with  their  fami- 
lies, abandoned  their  native  country  ;  while  those  who 
remained,  being  driven  to  desperation,  took  up  arms 
against  the  Romans,  and  thus  commenced  that  war, 
which  terminated  in  the  destruction  of  Judaea,  and  the 
taking  away  of  their  name  and  nation. 


COURTS  OF  JUDICATURE,  ETC.  19| 


CHAPTER  III. 

COTTRTS  OF   JUDICATURE,  LBGAL  PROCEEDINGS,  CRIMINAL   LAW,  AND  PUNISHBfBNTS 
OF  THE  JEWS. 

Section  I.— Jewish  Courts  of  Judicature,  and  Legal  Proceedings. 

On  the  settlement  of  the  Israelites  in  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan, Moses  commanded  them  to  appoint  judges  and  offi 
cers  in  all  their  gates  throughout  their  tribes.  (Deut.  xvi. 
18.)  The  priests  and  Levites,  who  from  their  being  de- 
voted to  the  study  of  the  law  were  consequently  best 
skilled  in  its  various  precepts,  and  old  men  who  were 
eminent  for  their  age  and  virtue,  administered  justice  to 
the  people :  in  consequence  of  their  age,  the  name  of 
Elders  became  attached  to  them.  Many  instances  of  this 
kind  occur  in  the  New  Testament :  they  were  also  called 
Rulers.  (Luke  xii.  58,  where  ruler  is  synonymous  with 
judge.)       . 

In  the  early  ages  of  the  world,  the  Gate  of  the  City 
was  the  seat  of  justice  ;  (Gen.  xxiii.  10.  Deut.  xxi.  19,  xxv. 
6,  7,)  on  which  account,  in  the  time  of  Moses,  the  judges 
appear  to  have  been  termed  the  Elders  of  the  Gate. 
(Deut.  xxii.  15,  xxv.  7.  Isa.  xxix.  21.) 

From  these  inferior  tribunals,  appeals  lay  to  a  higher 
court,  in  cases  of  importance.  (Deut.  xvii.  8—12. 

But  the  highest  and  most  eminent  tribunal  of  the  Jews, 
after  their  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  was  the 
Sanhedrin,  or  Great  Council,  so  often  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament.  It  consisted  of  seventy  or  seventy-two 
members,  under  the  chief  presidency  of  the  high  priest, 
under  whom  was  a  vice-president,  called  the  Father  of  the 
Council.  These  assessors  comprised  three  descriptions 
of  persons,  viz.:  1.  The  Chief  Priests,  who  were  partly 
such  priests  as  had  executed  the  Pontificate,  and  partly 
the  princes  or  chiefs  of  the  twenty-four  courses  or  classes 
of  priests,  who  enjoyed  this  honourable  title ; — 2.  The 
Elders,  perhaps  the  princes  of  tribes  or  heads  of  families; 
— and  3.  The  Scribes,  or  men  learned  in  the  law.  It  does 
not  appear  that  all  the  elders  and  scribes  were  members 
of  this  tribunal :  most  probably  those  only  were  assessors 
who  were  either  elected  to  the  office,  or  nominated  to  it 
by  royal  authority. 


192  COURTS  OF  JUDICATURE, 

Besides  the  Sanhedrin,  the  Talmudical  writers  assert 
that  there  were  other  smaller  councils,  each  consisting  of 
twenty-three  persons  who  heard  and  determined  petty- 
causes  :  two  of  these  were  at  Jerusalem,  and  one  in  every 
city  containing  one  hundred  and  twenty  inhabitants.  Jo- 
sephus  is  silent  concerning  these  tribunals,  but  they  cer- 
tainly appear  to  have  existed  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ: 
who,  by  images  taken  from  these  two  courts,  in  a  very 
striking  manner  represents  the  different  degrees  of  future 
punishments,  to  which  the  impenitently  wicked  will  be 
doomed  according  to  the  respective  heinousness  of  their 
crimes.  See  Matt.  v.  22. 

These  various  tribunals  had  their  inferior  ministers  or 
officers,  who  are  alluded  to  in  Matt.  v.  25. 

It  appears  from  Jer.  xxi.  12,  that  causes  were  heard, 
and  judgment  was  executed  in  the  morning;  and  at  first 
every  one  pleaded  his  own  cause;  (1  Kings  iii.  16 — 2S ;) 
though,  in  succeeding  ages,  the  Jews  seem  to  have  had 
advocates,  for  Tertullus  was  retained  against  St.  Paul. 
(Acts  xxiv.  1,  2.) 

On  the  day  appointed  for  hearing  the  cause,  the  parties 
appeared  before  the  judges  ;  who,  in  criminal  cases,  ex- 
horted the  culprit  to  confess  his  crime.  (Josh.  vii.  19.) 
In  matters  of  life  and  death,  the  evidence  of  two  or  three 
credible  witnesses  was  indispensable.  (Num.  xxxv.  30. 
Deut  xvii.  6,  7,  xix.  15.)  All  perjury  was  most  severely 
prohibited.  (Exod.  xx.  16,  xxiii.  1 — 3.)  Recourse  was, 
in  certain  cases,  had  to  the  sacred  lot,  called  Urim  and 
Thummim,  in  order  to  discover  the  guilty  party.  (Josh, 
vii.  14—18.  1  Sam.  xiv.  37—45.) 

Sentences  were  only  pronounced  in  the  daytime,  as  ap- 
pears from  Luke  xxii.  66.  Where  persons  had  rendered 
themselves  obnoxious  to  the  populace,  it  was  usual  (and 
the  same  practice  still  obtains  in  the  East)  for  them  to  de- 
mand prompt  justice  on  the  supposed  delinquents.  This 
circumstance  illustrates  Acts  xxii.  28 — 36.  As  soon  as 
sentence  of  condemnation  was  pronounced  against  a  per- 
son, he  was  immediately  dragged  from  the  court  to  the 
place  of  execution.  Thus  our  Lord  was  instantly  hurried 
from  the  presence  of  Pilate  to  Calvary  :  a  similar  in- 
stance of  prompt  execution  occurred  in  the  case  of  Achan  ; 
and  the  same  practice  obtains  to  this  day,  both  in  Turkey 


LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS  ETC.  OF  THE  JEWS       I93 

and  Persia.  So  zealous  were  the  Jews  fortlie  observance 
of  their  law,  that  they  were  not  ashamed  themselves  to 
be  the  executioners  of  it,  and  to  punish  criminals  with 
their  own  hands.  In  stoning  persons,  the  witnesses  threw 
the  first  stones,  agreeably  to  the  enactment  of  Moses. 
(Deut  xvii.  7.)  Thus  the  witnesses  against  the  protomar- 
tyr  Stephen,  after  laying  down  their  clothes  at  the  feet  of 
Saul,  stoned  him:  {Acts  vii.  58,  59:)  and  to  this  custom 
there  is  an  allusion  in  John  viii.  7.  As  there  were  no 
public  executioners  in  the  more  ancient  periods  of  the 
Jewish  history,  it  was  not  unusual  for  persons  of  distin- 
guished rank  themselves  to  put  the  sentence  in  execution 
upon  offenders.     See  an  instance  in  1  Sam.  xv.  33. 

But  in  whatever  manner  the  criminal  was  put  to  death, 
according  to  the  Talmudical  writers,  the  Jews  always 
gave  him  some  wine  with  incense  in  it,  in  order  to  stupify 
and  intoxicate  him.  This  custom  is  said  to  have  origi- 
nated in  the  precept,  recorded  in  Prov.  xxxi.  6,  which  suf- 
ficiently explains  the  reason  why  wine  mingled  with 
myrrh,  was  offered  to  Jesus  Christ  when  on  the  cross. 
(Mark  xv.  23. 


Section  11.— Roman  Judicature,  Manner  of  Trial,  and  Treatment  of 
Prisoners, 

Wherever  the  Romans  extended  their  power,  they  also 
carried  their  laws  ;  and  though,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
they  allowed  their  conquered  subjects  to  enjoy  the  free 
performance  of  their  religious  worship,  as  well  as  the  ex- 
ercise of  some  inferior  courts  of  judicature,  yet  in  all 
cases  of  a  capital  nature  the  tribunal  of  the  Roman  prefect 
or  president  was  the  last  resort.  Without  his  permission 
no  person  could  be  put  to  death  at  least  in  Judaea. 

The  Roman  law  forbade  any  one  especially  Roman  citi- 
zens, to  be  scourged  or  condemned,  unheard  and  without 
a  trial.  To  this  St.  Paul  alludes  in  Acts  xxii.  25.  Nei- 
ther could  a  Roman  citizen  be  legally  bound,  in  order  to 
be  examined  by  scourging,  or  by  any  other  mode  of  tor- 
ture, for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  confession.  When 
therefore,  the  tribune,  Lysias,  not  knowing  that  the  apos- 
tle enjoyed  the  citizenship  of  Rome,  had  commanded  that 


194  COURTS  OF  JUDICATURE, 

he  should  be  bound  and  examined  with  thongs,  and  was 
subsequently  informed  that  he  was  a  citizen,  the  sacred 
historian  relates  that  he  was  afraid,  after  he  kneio  that  he 
was  a  Roman,  and  because  he  had  bound  him.  (Acts  xxii. 
29.)  Further,  Roman  citizens  had  the  privilege  of  ap- 
pealing to  the  imperial  tribunal ;  and  this  privilege  the 
same  apostle  exercised.     (Acts  xxv.  9 — 12. 

"The  Roman  method  of  fettering  and  confining  crimi- 
nals was  singular.  One  end  of  a  chain,  that  was  of  com- 
modious length,  was  fixed  about  the  right  arm  of  the  pri- 
soner, and  the  other  end  was  fastened  to  the  left  arm  of  a 
soldier.  Thus  a  soldier  was  coupled  to  the  prisoner, 
and  every  where  attended  and  guarded  him.  This  man- 
ner of  confinement  is  frequently  mentioned,  and  there 
are  many  beautiful  allusions  to  it  in  the  Roman  writers. 
Thus  was  St.  Paul  confined.  Fettered  in  this  manner, 
he  delivered  his  apology  before  Festus,  king  Agrippa,  and 
Bernice."     (Acts  xxvi.  29.) 

Sometimes  the  prisoner  was  fastened  to  two  soldiers, 
one  on  each  side,  wearing  a  chain  both  on  his  right  and 
left  hand.  St.  Paul  at  first  was  thus  confined.  When 
the  tribune  received  him  from  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  he 
commanded  him  to  be  bound  with  two  chains.  (Acts  xxi. 
33.)  In  this  manner  was  Peter  fettered  and  confined  by 
Herod  Agrippa.  The  same  night  Peter  was  sleeping  be- 
tv-een  two  soldiers^  bound  with  two  chains.  (Acts  xii.  6.) 
If  these  soldiers  appointed  to  guard  criminals,  and  to 
whom  they  were  chained,  sufliered  the  prisoner  to  escape, 
they  were  punished  with  death ;  (Acts  xii.  19  ;)  and  the 
same  punishment  appears  to  have  awaited  gaolers,  who 
permitted  their  prisoners  to  escape.     (Acts  xvi.  27.) 

Though  not  strictly  a  Roman  tribunal,  yet  as  its  sittings 
were  permitted  by  the  Roman  government,  the  senate  and 
court  of  Areopagus,  at  Athens,  claims  a  concise  notice  in 
this  place.  It  took  cognizance,  among  other  things,  of 
matters  of  religion,  the  consecration  of  new  gods,  the 
erection  of  teniples  and  altars,  and  the  introduction  of 
new  ceremonies  into  divine  worship.  On  this  account, 
Saint  Paul  was  brought  before  the  tribunal  of  the  Areo- 
pagus, as  a  setter  forth  of  strange  gods,  became  he  preach- 
ed unto  the  Athenians  Jesus  and  A^araau,  (Anastasis,)  or 
the  Resurrection.    (Acts  xvii.  19.)    Its  sittings  were  held 


LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS,  ETC.  OF  THE  JEWS.  ^95 

on  the  ApeiosTlaYos,(Are'ios  Pagos,oT  Hill  of  Mars,  whence 
its  name  was  derived,)  which  is  situated  in  the  midst  of 
the  city  of  Athens. 


Section  HI.— On  the  Criminal  Law  of  the  Jews. 

I.  Crimes  against  God. — The  government  of  the  Is- 
raelites being  a  Theocracy,  that  is,  one  in  which  the  su- 
preme legislative  power  was  vested  in  the  Almighty,  who 
was  regarded  as  their  king,  it  was  to  be  expected  that,  in 
a  state  confessedly  religious,  crimes  against  the  Su- 
preme Majesty  of  Jehovah  should  occupy  a  primary 
place  in  the  statutes  given  by  Moses  to  that  people.  Ac- 
cordingly 

1.  Idolatry,  that  is,  the  worship  of  other  gods,  in  the 
Mosaic  law  occupies  the  first  place  in  the  list  of  crimes. 
An  Israelite  therefore  was  guilty  of  idolatry, 

CI.)  When  he  actually  worshipped  other  gods  besides 
Jehovah,  the  only  true  God.  This  crime  is  prohibited  in 
Exod.  XX.  3. 

(2.)  By  worshipping  images,  whether  of  the  true  God 
under  a  visible  form,  to  which  the  Israelites  were  but  too 
prone,  (Exod.  xxxii.  4, 5.  Judg.  xvii.  3,  xviii.  4 — 6. 14 — 17. 
30,  31,  vi.  25—33,  viii.  24—27.  1  Kings  xii.  26—31,) 
or  of  the  images  of  the  gods  of  the  Gentiles,  of  which 
we  have  so  many  instances  in  the  sacred  history.  All 
image-worship  whatever  is  expressly  forbidden  in  Exod. 
XX.  4,  5 ;  and  a  curse  is  denounced  against  it  in  Deut. 
xxvii.  15. 

(3.)  By  prostration  "before,  or  adoration  of,  suchimages^ 
or  of  any  thing  else  revered  as  a  god,  such  as  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars.  (Exod.  xx.  5,  xxxiv.  14.  Deut.  iv.  19.) 
This  prostration  consisted  in  falling  down  on  the  knees, 
and  at  the  same  time  touching  the  ground  with  the  fore- 
head. 

(4.)  By  having  altars  or  groves  dedicated  to  idoh,  or 
images  thereof;  all  which  the  Mosaic  law  required  to  be 
utterly  destroyed  ;  (Exod  xxxiv.  13.  Deut.  vii.  5,  xii.  13;) 
and  the  Israelites  were  prohibited,  by  Deut.  vii.  25,  26, 


196  COURTS  OF  JUDICATURE, 

from  keeping,  or  even  bringing  into  their  houses,  the  gold 
and  silver  that  had  been  upon  any  image,  lest  it  should 
prove  a  snare,  and  lead  them  astray. 

(5.)  By  offering  sacrifices  to  idols,  whicli  is  forbidden  in 
Levit.  xviii.  1 — 7,  especially  human  victims,  which  is 
prohibited  in  Levit.  .;xviii.  21.    Deut.  xii.  30.  and  xviii.  10. 

(6.)  By  eating  of  offerings  made  to  idols,  made  by  other 
'people,  who  invited  them  to  their  offering-feasts.  Though 
no  special  law  was  enacted  against  thus  attending  the 
festivals  of  their  gods,  it  is  evidently  presupposed  as  un- 
lawful in  Exod.  xxxiv.  15. 

Idolatry  was  punished  by  stoning  the  guilty  individual. 
When  a  whole  city  became  guilty  of  idolatry,  it  was  con- 
sidered in  a  state  of  rebellion  against  the  government, 
and  was  treated  according  to  the  laws  of  war.  Its  inha- 
bitants, and  all  their  cattle,  were  put  to  death  ;  no  spoil 
was  made,  but  every  thing  which  it  contained  was  burnt, 
together  with  the  city  itself;  nor  was  it  ever  allowed  to 
be  rebuilt.  (Deut.  xiii.  13 — 19.)  This  law  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  particularly  enforced  :  the  Israelites, 
from  their  proneness  to  adopt  the  then  almost  universally 
prevalent  polytheism,  in  most  cases  overlooked  the  crime 
of  a  city  that  became  notoriously  idolatrous  ;  whence  it 
happened,  that  idolatry  was  not  confined  to  any  one  city, 
but  soon  overspread  the  whole  nation.  In  this  case, 
when  the  people,  as  a  people,  brought  guilt  upon  them- 
selves by  their  idolatry,  God  reserved  to  himself  the  in- 
fliction of  the"  punishments  denounced  against  that  na- 
tional crime  ;  which  consisted  in  wars,  famines,  and  other 
national  judgments.  (Lev.  xxvi.  Deut.  xxviii. ,  xxix.,  xxxii.) 
For  the  crime  of  seducing  others  to  the  worship  of  strange 
gods,  tlie  appointed  punishment  was  stoning  to  death. 
(Deut.  xiii.  2 — 12.)  In  order  to  prevent  the  barbarous 
immolation  of  infants,  Moses  denounced  the  punishment 
of  stoning  upon  those  who  offered  human  sacrifices; 
which  the  by-standers  might  instantly  execute  upon  the 
delinquent,  when  caught  in  the  act,  without  any  judicial 
inquiry  whatever.  (Levit.  xx.  2.) 

2.  God  being  both  the  sovereign  and  the  legislator  of 
the  Israelites,  Blasphemy,  that  is,  the  speaking  injuriously 
of  his  name,  his  attributes,  his  government,  and  his  revc- 


LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS,  ETC.  OF  THE  JEWS.       297 

lation,  was  not  only  a  crime  against  Him,  but  also  against 
the  state ;  it  was  therefore  punished  capitally  by  stoning. 
(Lev.  xxiv.  10—14.) 

3.  It  appears  from  Deut.  xviii.  20 — 22,  that  a  False 
Prophet  was  punished  capitally,  being  stoned  to  death. 

4.  Divination,  or  the  conjecturing  of  future  events, 
from  things  supposed  to  presage  them,  is  expressly  prohi- 
bited in  Levit.  xix.  26.  31,  xx.  6.  23.  27,  and  Deut. 
xviii.  9 — 12.  The  punishment  of  the  party  cojisidtirig  a 
diviner,  was  reserved  to  God  himself;  (Levit.  xx.  6;) 
but  the  diviner  himself  was  to  be  stoned.  (Levit.  xx.  27.) 

5.  Perjury  is,  by  the  Mosaic  law,  most  peremptorily 
prohibited  as  a  most  heinous  sin  against  God,  to  whom 
the  punishment  of  it  is  left. 

II.  Crimes  against  Parents  and  Magistrates  con- 
stitute an  important  article  of  the  criminal  law  of  the 
Hebrews. 

1.  In  the  form  of  government  among  that  people,  we 
recognise  much  of  the  patriarchal  spirit ;  in  consequence 
of  which,  fathers  enjoyed  great  rights  over  their  families. 
The  cursing  of  parents,  that  is,  not  only  the  imprecation 
of  evil  on  them,  but  probably  also  all  rude  and  reproach' 
jut  language  towards  them,  was  punished  with  death; 
(Exod.  xxi.  17.  Levit.  xx.  9;)  as  likewise  was  the  strik- 
ing of  them.  (Exod.  xxi.  15.)  An  example  of  the  crime 
of  cursing  a  parent,  which  is  fully  in  point,  is  given  by 
Jesus  Christ  in  Matt.  xv.  4 — 6,  or  Mark  vii.  9 — 12. 
Both  these  crimes  are  included  in  the  case  of  the  stub- 
born, rebellious,  and  drunkard  son ;  whom  his  parents 
were  unable  to  keep  in  order,  and  who,  when  intoxicated, 
endangered  the  lives  of  others.  Such  an  irreclaimable 
offender  was  to  be  punished  with  stoning.  (Deut.  xxi.  18 
— 21.)  Severe  as  this  law  may  seem,  we  have  no  in- 
stance recorded  of  its  being  carried  into  effect ;  but  it 
must  have  had  a  most  salutary  operation  in  the  prevention 
of  such  crimes. 

2.  Civil  government  being  an  ordinance  of  God,  pro- 
vision is  made  in  all  well  regulated  states  for  respecting 
the  persons  of  magistrates.  All  reproachful  words,  or 
curses,  uttered  against  persons  invested  with  authority, 
are  prohibited  in  Exod.  xxii.  28.     No  punishment,  how- 

17* 


19S  COURTS  OF  JUDICATURE, 

ever,  is  specified  ;  probably  it  was  left  to  the  discretion  of 
the  judge,  and  was  different,  according  to  the  rank  of  the 
magistrate    and  the  extent  of  the  crime. 

III.  The  Crbies,  or  Offences  against  Property,  men- 
tioned by  Moses,  are  theft,  man-stealing,  and  the  denial 
of  any  thing  taken  in  trust,  or  found. 

1.  On  the  crime  of  Theft,  Moses  imposed  the  punish- 
ment of  double  (and  in  certain  cases  still  higher)  restitu- 
tion ;  and  if  the  thief  was  unable  to  make  it,  he  was  or- 
dered to  be  sold  for  a  slave,  and  payment  was  to  be  made 
to  the  injured  party,  out  of  the  purchase  money.  (Exod. 
xxii.  1.  3.)  The  same  practice  obtains,  according  to 
Chardin,  among  the  Persians.  If,  however,  a  thief,  after 
having  denied,  even  upon  oath,  any  theft  with  which  he 
was  charged,  had  the  honesty,  or  conscience,  to  retract 
his  perjury,  and  to  confess  his  guilt,  instead  of  double 
restitution,  he  had  only  to  repay  the  amount  stolen,  and 
one-Jiftk  more.  (Levit.  vi.  2.  5.)  In  case  of  debt  also, 
the  creditor  might  seize  the  debtor's  person,  and  sell  him, 
together  with  his  wife  and  children,  if  he  had  any.  This 
is  inferred  from  the  words  of  the  statute,  in  Levit.  xxv. 
39.  There  is  an  allusion  to  this  custom  in  Job  xxiv.  9  ; 
and  a  case  in  point  is  related  in  2  Kings  iv.  1.  This 
practice  also  obtained  among  the  Jews,  in  the  days  of  Ne- 
hemiah,  (v.  1 — 5,)  and  Jesus  Christ  refers  to  it  in  Matt, 
xviii.  25. 

2.  Man-stealing,  that  is,  the  seizing,  or  stealing  of  the 
person  of  a  free-born  Israelite,  was  absolutely  and  irre- 
missibly  punished  with  death.  (Exod.  xxi.  16,  Deut. 
xxiv.  7.) 

3.  Where  a  person  was  judicially  convicted  of  having 
denied  any  thing  committed  to  his  trvst,or  found  by  him, 
his  punishment,  as  in  the  case  of  theft,  was  double  resti- 
tution. If  the  person  accused  of  this  crime  had  sworn 
himself  guiltless,  and  afterwards,  from  the  impulse  of  his 
conscience,  acknowledged  the  commission  of  perjury,  he 
had  only  one-fifth  beyond  the  value  of  the  article  denied, 
to  refund  to  its  owner.   (Levit.  vi.  5.) 

IV.  Among   the    Crimes   which   may  be   committed 

AGAINST  THE  PeRSON, 

1.  Murder  claims  the  first  place.     As  this  is  a  crime 


LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS,  ETC.  OF  THE  JEWS,  199 

of  the  most  heinous  nature,  Moses  has  described  four 
necessary  circumstances,  or  marks,  by  which  to  distin- 
guish it  from  simple  homicide,  or  manslaughter,  viz. :  1. 
When  it  proceeds  from  hatred,  or  enmity.  (Numb.  xxxv. 
20,  21.  Deut.  xix.  11.)  2.  When  it  proceeds  from  thirst 
of  blood,  or  a  desire  to  satiate  revenge  with  the  blood  of 
another.  (Numb.  xxxv.  20.)  3.  When  it  is  committed 
premeditatedly  and  deceitfully.  (Exod.  xxi.  14.)  4.  When 
a  man  lies  in  wait  for  another,  falls  upon  him,  and  slays 
him.  (Deut.  xix.  11.)  The  punishment  of  murder  wa= 
death,  without  all  power  of  redemption. 

2.  Homicide,  or  Manslaughter,  is  discriminated  by  the 
following  adjuncts,  or  circumstances  :  1.  That  it  lakes 
place  with  out  \idi\iedi  or  enmity.  (Numb.  xxxv.  22.  Deut. 
xix.  4 — 6.)  2.  Without  thirst  for  revenge.  (Exod.  xxi. 
13.  Numb.  xxxv.  22.)  3.  When  it  happens  by  mistake. 
(Numb.  xxxv.  11.  15.)  4.  By  accident,  or  (as  it  is  term- 
ed in  the  English  law)  chance-medley.  (Deut.  xix.  5.) 
The  punishment  of  homicide  was  confinement  to  a  city 
of  refuge. 

3.  For  other  corporal  injuries  of  various  kinds,  diffe- 
rent statutes  were  made,  which  show  the  wisdom  and  hu- 
manity of  the  Mosaic  laws.  See  Exod.  xxi.  18,  19,  22 — 
27,  and  Levit.  xxiv.  19—22. 

4.  Adultery,  and  another  crime  not  to  be  named,  were 
both  punished  with  death.  (Levit.  xx.  10,  xviii.  22,  23, 
and  XX.  13.  16,  16.) 

V.  CjiiMES  OF  Malice  were  punished  with  equal  jus- 
tice and  severity. 

Malicious  informers  were  odious  in  the  eye  of  the  law ; 
(Levit.  xix.  16 — 18 ;)  and  the  publication  of  false  reports, 
affecting  the  characters  of  others,  is  expressly  prohibited 
in  Exod.  xxiii.  1 ;  as  also  is  all  manner  of  false  witness, 
even  though  it  were  to  favour  a  poor  man.  But  where  a 
person  was  convicted  of  having  borne  false  testimony 
against  an  innocent  man,  he  suffered  the  very  same  pu- 
nishment which  attended  the  crime  of  which  he  accused 
his  innocent  brother.   (Deut.  xix.  16 — 21.) 


200  COURTS  OF  JUDICATURE, 


Section  IV.— On  the  Punishments  menUoned  in  the  Scriptures. 

The  Punishments,  mentioned  in  the  sacred  writings, 
are  usually  divided  into  two  classes, — non-capital,  and 
capital. 

I.  The  non-cayitaly  or  inferior  punishments,  were  as 
follow : 

1.  Scourging ;  this  was  the  most  common  corporal 
punishment  under  the  Mosaic  law.  It  is  frequently  men- 
tioned, both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments ;  and  in 
order  that  the  legal  number  of  forty  stripes  might  not  be 
exceeded,  it  was  inflicted  with  a  scourge  consisting  of 
three  lashes,  so  that  the  party  received  only  thirteen 
blows,  or  forty  stripes,  save  one. 

2.  Retaliation,  (Exod.  xxi.  24,)  or  returning  like  for 
like,  was  the  punishment  of  corporal  injuries  to  another. 
It  is  expressly  forbidden  by  Jesus  Christ,  in  Matt.  v. 
38,  39. 

3.  Restitution  of  things  stolen,  and  for  various  other 
injuries  done  to  the  property  of  another  person.  (Exod. 
xxi.  32,  33,  34.  36,  xxii.  6.  Levit.  xxiv.  18.) 

4.  Compensation  to  an  injured  party,  to  induce  him  to 
depart  from  his  suit,  was  permitted,  at  least  in  one  case, 
(Exod.  xxi.  30,)  but  was  forbidden  in  the  case  of  murder 
and  homicide.  (Num.  xxxv.  31,  32.) 

5.  Sin  and  Trespass  Offerings  were  also  in  the  nature 
of  punishments :  the  various  cases  for  which  they  were 
to  be  made,  are  specified  in  Levit.  iv.  2,  v.  1.  4 — 7.  14, 
15,  vi.  1—7,  and  xix.  22. 

6.  Imprisonment,  though  not  enjoined  by  Moses,  was 
practised,  both  during  the  Jewish  monarchy,  and  in  the 
time  of  Christ.  In  Gen.  xli.  14,  Jer.  xxxviii.  6,  Zech. 
ix.,  and  Acts  v.  18,  there  are  allusions  to  inner  prisons  or 
dungeons,  where  the  persons  confined  were  very  harshly 
treated ;  especially  as  the  ancient  gaolers  (like  those  in  the 
East  to  this  day)  had  a  discretionary  power  to  treat  the 
prisoners  just  as  they  pleased.  To  this  painful  situation 
of  prisonors,  there  are  allusions  in  Psal.  Ixxix.  11,  and 
Jer.  xxxvii.  16 — 20. 

7.  Banishment  was  not  introduced  among  the  Jews 
until  after  the  captivity.     It  also  existed  among  the  Ri>- 


LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS,  ETC.  OF  THE  JEWS.  gQ^ 

mans.     St.  John  was  banished  to  the  isle  of  Patmos. 
(Rev.  i.  9.) 

8.  In  the  East,  anciently,  as  well  as  in  modem  times, 
prisoners  were  deprived  of  their  eyes.  See  instances  in 
Judg.  xvi.  21,  and  2  Kings  xxv.  7. 

9.  Plucking  off  the  hair,  with  great  violence,  was  both 
a  painful  and  ignominious  punishment.  It  is  alluded  to 
in  Neh.  xiii.  25. 

10.  Excommunication,  or  exclusion  from  sacred  wor- 
ship, was  a  civil,  as  well  as  an  ecclesiastical  punishment, 
which  varied  in  the  degrees  of  its  severity.  The  first, 
called  Nidui,  was  simply  casting  out  of  the  synagogue, 
(John  ix.  22,  xvi.  2,  &c.,)  and  was  in  force  for  thirty  days, 
which  might  be  shortened.  In  the  second,  termed  Cherem, 
or  anathema,  the  excommunicated  party  was  delivered 
over  to  Satan,  and  devoted  by  a  solemn  curse.  To  this 
St.  Paul  alludes  in  1  Cor.  v  5,  and  Rom.  ix.  2.  The  third 
degree  was  called  Sham-Atha,  or  Maran-Atha,  i.  e.  the 
Lord  Cometh,  or  may  the  Lord  come ;  and  intimated  that 
the  party  had  nothing  more  to  expect  but  the  terrible  day 
of  judgment.  The  effects  of  excommunication  were 
dreadful :  the  individuals  against  whom  it  was  fulminated 
were  debarred  of  all  social  intercourse,  and  the  privilege 
of  divine  worship,  and  were  subjected  to  various  civil 
disabilities. 

11.  Eleven  different  sorts  of  Capital  Punishments  are 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  viz. : 

1.  Slaying  with  the  sword,  which  appears  to  have  been 
inflicted  in  any  way  in  which  the  executioner  thought 
proper.  This  was  the  punishment  of  murder :  but  in 
the  case  of  homicide,  if  the  next  of  kin,  called  Goel,  or 
the  Blood-avenger,  overtook  and  slew  the  unintentional 
man-slayer,  before  he  reached  an  asylum,  he  was  not  con- 
sidered to  be  guilty  of  blood.  The  man-slayer  was  there- 
fore enjoined  to  flee  to  one  of  the  six  cities  of  refuge, 
which,  if  he  reached,  he  was  immediately  protected  ;  and 
an  inquiry  was  instituted,  whether  he  had  deliberately,  or 
accidentally  caused  his  neighbour's  death.  In  the  former 
case  he  was  judicially  delivered  to  the  goel,  who  might 
put  him  to  death  in  any  way  that  he  chose ;  in  the  latter, 
the  homicide  continued  to  reside  in  the  place  of  refuge 
until  the  high  priest's  death  :  yet,  if  the  goel  found  hiia 


202  COURTS  OF  JUDICATURE, 

without  the  city,  or  its  suburbs,  he  might  slay  him,  with- 
out being  guilty  of  blood.  (Numb.  xxxv.  26,  27.)  There 
is  a  beautiful  allusion  to  the  goel  in  Heb.  vi.  17,  18. 

2.  Stoning  was  denounced  against  idolaters,  blasphe- 
mers. Sabbath-breakers,  and  other  criminals,  mentioned  in 
Levit.  XX.  2.  27,  xxiv.  14.  Deut.  xiii.  10,  xvii.  5,  xxi.  21, 
and  xxii.  21.  24.  The  witnesses  threw  the  first  stones, 
and  the  rest  of  the  people  followed.  The  frequent  taking 
up  of  stones,  by  the  Jews,  against  our  Saviour,  mention- 
ed in  the  New  Testament,  and  also  the  stoning  of  Ste- 
phen, (Acts  vii.  59,)  and  of  Paul,  (Acts  xiv.  19,)  have 
been  referred,  erroneously,  to  this  punishment :  it  belong- 
ed to  what  was,  in  the  later  times  of  the  Jewish  common- 
wealth, called  the  rebels^  beating.  It  was  often  fatal,  and 
was  inflicted  by  the  populace  on  those  who  had  either  trans- 
gressed, or  were  supposed  to  have  transgressed,  any  pro- 
hibition of  the  scribes. 

3.  Burning  alive  was  the  punishment  denounced 
against  certain  criminals,  mentioned  inLcvit.  xx.  14,  and 
xxi.  9.  It  is  also  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxxviii,  24.  Jer. 
xxix.  22,  and  Dan.  iii.  6. 

The  preceding  are  the  only  capital  punishments  de- 
nounced in  the  Mosaic  Law  :  in  subsequent  times  others 
were  introduced  among  the  Jews,  as  their  intercourse  in- 
creased with  foreign  nations  ;  viz. : 

4.  Beheading.  It  is  mentioned  in  Gen.  xl.  19,  Matt. 
xiv.  8—12,  and  Mark  vi.  27. 

5.  Precipitation,  or  casting  headlong  from  a  window, 
though  rarely  used,  yet  was  practised  on  certain  occasions. 
See  instances  in  2  Kings  ix.  30 — 33,  and  2  Chron.  xxv.  12. 

6.  Drowning  is  alluded  to  in  Matt,  xviii.  6,  but  we 
have  no  proof  that  it  was  practised  by  the  Jews. 

7.  Bruising,  or  Poundi7ig  in  a  mortar,  is  alluded  to 
in  Prov.  xxvii.  22.     It  is  still  in  use  among  the  Turks. 

8.  Dichotomy,  or  cutti7ig  asunder,  was  a  punishment 
inflicted  in  the  countries  contiguous  to  Judaea,  (see  Dan. 
ii.  5,  and  iii.  29,)  as  it  still  is  in  Barbary  and  Persia 

9.  Beating  to  death  was  in  use  among  the  Greeks :  it 
was  practised  by  Antiochus  towards  the  Jews,  (2  Mace, 
vi.  19.  28.  30,)  and  is  referred  to  by  St.  Paul,  in  Heb.  xi. 
35.  (Gr.  in  our  version  rendered  tortured.) 

10.  Exposing  to  wild  Beasts  was  a  punishment  among 


LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS,  ETC.  OF  THE  JEWS.  gQS 

the  Medes  and  Persians ;  (Dan.  vi.  7.  12.  16 — 34 ;)  from 
them  it  passed  to  the  Romans,  who  either  cast  slaves 
and  vile  persons,  to  wild  beasts,  to  be  devoured  by  them, 
or  sent  armed  men  into  the  theatre  to  fight  with  the  ani- 
mals. If  they  conquered,  they  had  their  lives  and  liberty ; 
but  if  not,  they  fell  a  prey  to  the  beasts.  To  this  latter 
usage  St.  Paul  refers  in  2  Tim.  iv.  17,  and  1  Cor.  xv.  32. 
11.  Crucifixion  was  a  punishment  which  the  ancients 
inflicted  only  upon  the  most  notorious  criminals  and  male- 
factors ;  and  it  included  every  idea  and  circumstance  of 
lingering  torture,  odium,  disgrace,  and  public  scandal. 
Hence  St.  Paul  takes  occasion  to  magnify  the  exceeding 
great  love  of  our  Redeemer,  in  that,  while  we  were  yet 
sinners,  Christ  died  for  us,  and,  for  the  joy[  that  was  set 
before  him,  endured  the  cross,  despising  the  shame  and  ig- 
nominy attached  to  it.  (Rom.  v.  8.  Heb.  xii.  2.)  In  this 
punishment,  the  cross  was  made  of  two  beams,  either 
crossing  at  the  top  at  right  angles,  or  in  the  middle  of 
their  length,  like  an  X.  Our  Lord  appears  to  have  been 
crucified  on  a  cross  of  the  former  kind.  The  horror  of 
crucifixion  will  be  evident,  when  it  is  considered  that  the 
person  was  permitted  to  hang  (the  whole  weight  of  his 
body  being  borne  up  by  his  nailed  hands  and  feet,  and  by 
the  projecting  piece  in  the  middle  of  the  cross,)  until  he 
perished  through  agony  and  want  of  food.  There  are 
instances  of  crucified  persons  living  in  this  exquisite 
torture  several  days.  The  rites  of  sepulture  were  de- 
nied them.  Their  dead  bodies  were  generally  left  on 
the  crosses  on  which  they  were  first  suspended,  and 
became  a  prey  to  every  ravenous  beast,  and  carnivorous 
bird.  This  mode  of  executing  criminals,  obtained  among 
various  ancient  nations,  especially  among  the  Romans, 
by  whom  it  was  inflicted  chiefly  on  vile,  worthless,  and 
incorrigible  slaves.  In  reference  to  this,  the  apostle,  de- 
scribing the  condescension  of  Jesus,  and  his  submission 
to  this  most  opprobrious  death,  represents  him  as  taking 
upon  him  the  form  of  a  servant,  (Phil.  ii.  7,  8,)  and  be- 
coming obedient  to  death,  even  the  death  of  the  cross.  AH 
the  circumstances  attending  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  Christ, 
as  related  in  the  four  gospels,  agree  with  the  accounts 
given  of  this  punishment  by  Greek  and  Roman  authors.* 

*  For  a  full  detail  of  these  circumstances,  which  do  not  admit  of  abridg- 
ment; see  the  author's  larger  Introduction,  vol.  iii.  pp  150—160. 


20i  JEWISH  AND  ROMAN  M0DE8 


CHAPTER  IV. 

JEWISH  AND  KOMAN  MODBS  OP  COMPtJTINa  TIME,   MENTIONED  IN  THE 
6CRIPTUKES. 

A  KNOWLEDGE  of  the  different  divisions  of  time  men- 
tioned in  the  Scriptures,  will  elucidate  the  meaning  of  a 
multitude  of  passages  with  regard  to  seasons,  circumstan- 
ces, and  ceremonies. 

I.  The  Hebrews  computed  their  Days  from  evening 
to  evening,  according  to  the  command  of  Moses.  (Lev. 
xxiii.  32.) 

The  Romans  had  two  different  computations  of  their 
days,  and  two  denominations  for  them.  The  one  they 
called  the  civil ^  the  other  the  natural  day  :  the  first  was 
the  same  as  ours;  the  second,  which  was  the  vulgar  com- 
putation, began  at  six  in  the  morning,  and  ended  at  six  in 
the  evening.  The  civil  day  of  the  Jews  varied  in  length, 
according  to  the  seasons  of  the  year.  This  portion  of 
time  was,  at  first,  divided  into  four  parts,  (Nehem.  ix.  3  ;) 
which,  though  varying  in  length  according  to  the  seasons, 
could  nevertheless  be  easily  discerned  from  the  position, 
or  appearance  of  the  sun  in  the  horizon.  Afterwards,  the 
civil  day  was  divided  into  twelve  hours,  which  were  mea- 
sured either  from  the  position  of  the  sun,  or  from  dials 
constructed  for  that  purpose. 

II.  These  Hours  were  equal  to  each  other,  but  un- 
equal with  respect  to  the  different  seasons  of  the  year ; 
thus  the  twelve  hours  of  the  longest  day  in  summer  were 
much  longer  than  those  of  the  shortest  day  in  winter. 
The  Jews  computed  their  hours  of  the  civil  day,  from  six 
in  the  morning,  till  six  in  the  evening ;  thus  their  Jirst 
hour  corresponded  with  our  seven  o'clock ;  their  second 
to  our  eight ;  their  third  to  our  nine^  «fcc. 

The  nigiit  was  originally  divided  into  three  parts,  or 
WATCHES,  (Psal.  Ixiii.  6,  xc.  4.  Lam.  ii.  19.  Jud.  vii.  19. 
Exod.  xiv.  24,)  which  probably  were  of  unequal  length. 
In  the  time  of  Jesus  Ciirist,  it  was  divided  into  four 
watches  ;  a  fourth  watch  having  been  introduced  among 
the  Jews  from  the  Romans.  The  hour  is  frequently  used 
with  great  latitude  in  the  Scriptures,  and  sometimes  im- 
plies the  space  of  time  occupied  by  a  whole  watch.  (Matt. 


OF  COMPUTING  TIME.  205 

XXV.  13,  xx^'i.  40.  Mark  xiv.  37.  Luke  xxii.  59.  Rev. 
iii.  3.) 

The  Jews  reckoned  two  evenings :  the  former  began 
at  the  ninth  hour  of  the  natural  day,  or  three  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon ;  and  the  latter  at  the  eleventh  hour.  Thus 
the  paschal  lamb  was  required  to  be  sacrificed  between 
the  evenings.     Exod.  xii.  6.     Lev.  xxiii.  4.) 

IIL  Seven  nights  and  days  constituted  a  Week  ;  six 
of  these  were  appropriated  to  labour,  and  the  ordinary 
purposes  of  life,  and  the  seventh  day,  or  Sabbath,  was  ap- 
pointed by  God  to  be  observed  as  a  day  of  rest.  Besides 
weeks  of  days,  the  Jews  had  weeks  of  seven  years,  (the 
seventh  of  which  was  called  the  sabbatical  year,)  and 
weeks  of  seven  times  seven  years,  or  of  forty-nine  years, 
which  were  reckoned  from  one  jubilee  to  another.  The 
fiftieth,  or  jubilee  year  was  celebrated  with  singular  festi- 
vity and  solemnity. 

IV.  The  Hebrews  had  their  Months,  which  like  those 
of  all  other  ancient  nations,  were  lunar  ones,  being  mea- 
sured by  the  revolutions  of  the  moon,  and  consisting  alter- 
nately of  twenty-nine  and  thirty  days.  While  the  Jews 
continued  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  the  commencement  of 
their  months  and  years  was  not  settled  by  any  astrono- 
mical rules,  or  calculations,  but  by  the  phasis  or  actual 
appearance  of  the  moon.  As  soon  as  they  saw  the  moon, 
they  began  the  month ;  but  since  their  dispersion  through- 
out all  nations,  they  have  had  recourse  to  astronomical 
calculations  and  cycles,  in  order  to  fix  the  beginning  of 
their  months  and  years. 

Originally,  the  Jews  had  no  particular  names  for  their 
months,  but  called  them  the  first,  second,  &c.  In  Exod. 
xiii.  4,  Xhe  first  month  is  termed  Abib ;  in  1  Kings  vi.  1,  the 
second  is  named  Zif ;  in  1  Kings  viii.  2,  the  seventh  is 
named  Ethanim ;  and  the  eighth,  Bui,  in  1  Kings  vi.  38 : 
but  concerning  the  origin  of  these  appellations,  critics  are 
by  no  means  agreed.  On  their  return  from  the  Babylo- 
nish captivity,  they  introduced  the  names  which  they  had 
found  among  the  Chaldeans  and  Persians,  and  some  of 
which  are  mentioned  in  the  sacred  writings. 

V.  The  Jews  had  four  sorts  of  years  ;  one  for  plants, 
so  called,  because  they  paid  tithe-fruits  of  the  trees  which 
budded  at  that  time ;  another  for  beasts^  in  which  they 

18 


206 


JEWISH  AND  ROMAN  MODES 


paid  tithes  of  the  beasts  that  fell  within  the  year :  a  third 
for  sacred  purposes,  and  the  fourth  was  civil  and  common 
to  all  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine.  The  two  last  as  be- 
ing most  known,  require  briefly  to  be  noticed. 

1.  The  Ecclesiastical^  or  Sacred  Year,  began  in 
March,  or  on  the  first  day  of  the  month  Nisan,  because  at 
that  time  they  departed  out  of  Egypt,  From  that  month 
they  computed  their  feasts,  and  the  prophets  also  occa- 
sionally dated  their  oracles  and  visions.  (See  Zech.  vii.  1.) 
The  following  table  presents  the  months  of  the  Jewish 
ecclesiastical  year,  compared  with  our  months : 


1.  Nisan  or  Ablb  ) 

(Neh.  ii.    1.  >  answering  to  part  of 
Eslh.    ill.  7.)) 

2.  Jyar  or  Zif       - 

3.  Sivan  (Esth.  vlli.  9.)  • 

4.  Thammuz 

5.  Ab         - 

6.  Elul  (Neh.  vl.  15.)      • 

7.  Tlsri      -  -  .  - 

8.  Marchesvan     - 

9.  Kisleu  or  Chisleu  ; 
(Ze«^h.  vll.  1.  Neh.  L  l.)S 

10.  Thebet 

11.  SebaKZech.  1.  7.) 

12.  Adar  (Ezr.  vl.  15.    Esth.  ill.  7.) 


March  and  April. 

April  and  May. 
May  and  June. 
June  and  July. 
July  and  August. 
August  and  September. 
September  and  October, 
October  and  November. 

November  and  December. 

December  and  January. 
January  and  February. 
February  and  March. 


2.  The  Civil  Year,  commenced  on  the  fifteenth  of  our 
September,  because  it  was  an  old  tradition  that  the  world 
was  created  at  that  time.  From  this  year  the  Jews  com- 
puted their  jubilees,  dated  all  contracts,  and  noted  the 
birth  of  children,  and  the  reigns  of  kings.  The  annexed 
table  exhibits  the  months  of  the  Jewish  civil  year  with  the 
corresponding  months  of  our  computation : 

!.  TisrI        -        corresponda  with  part  of  September  and  October. 
2.  Marchesvan     ....      October  and  November. 

November  and  December 
December  and  Janaury. 
January  and  February. 
February  and  March. 
March  and  April. 
April  and  May 
May  and  June. 
June  and  July. 
July  and  August. 
August  nnd  September. 
Borne  of  the  preceding  names  are  still  In  use  In  Per.'?ia. 

As  the  Jewish  years,  being  regulated  by  the  phases,  or 
appearances  of  the  moon,  were  lunar  years,  consisting  of 
three  hundred  and  fifty-four  days  and  eight  hours,  it  be- 


3. 

Chisleu  or  Kisleu 

4. 

Thebet 

5. 

Sebat     - 

P. 

Adar      . 

7. 

Nisan  or  Abib 

B. 

Jyar  or  Zif 

9. 

Slvan    ■ 

10. 

Thammuz 

11. 

Ab 

12. 

Elul       . 

OF  COMPUTING  TIME.  207 

carae  necessary  to  accommodate  them  to  solar  years,  in 
order  that  their  months,  and  consequently  their  festivals, 
might  always  fall  at  the  same  season.  For  this  purpose, 
the  Jews  added  a  whole  month  to  the  year,  as  often  as  it 
was  necessary ;  which  occurred  commonly  once  in  three 
years,  and  sometimes  once  in  two  years.  This  interca- 
lary month  was  added  at  the  end  of  the  ecclesiastical  year, 
after  the  month  Adar,  and  was  therefore  called  Ve-Adar, 
or  the  second  Adar. 

VI.  In  common  with  other  nations,  the  Jews  reckoned 
any  part  of  a  period  of  time  for  the  whole,  as  in  Exod. 
xvi.  35.  Thus,  a  part  of  the  day  is  used  for  the  whole, 
and  part  of  a  year  for  an  entire  year.  An  attention  to 
this  circumstance  will  explain  several  apparent  contra- 
dictions in  the  sacred  writings ;  particularly  the  account 
of  our  Lord's  resurrection,  in  Matt,  xxvii.  63,  and  Mark 
viii.  31,  three  days  after,  with  that  of  his  resurrection 
on  the  third  day,  according  to  Matt.  xvi.  21,  and  Luke 
ix.  22. 

Besides  the  computation  of  years,  the  Hebrews  first, 
and  the  Jews  afterwards,  were  accustomed  to  reckon  their 
time  from  some  remarkable  seras,  or  epochas:  as,  1.  The 
Lives  of  the  Patriarchs,  or  other  illustrious  persons;  (Gen. 
vii.  1,  viii.  13  ;) — 2.  From  their  Departure  out  of  Egypt ^ 
and  the  first  institution  of  their  polity;  (Exod.  xix.  1,  xl. 
17.  Numb.  i.  1,  ix.  1,  xxxiii.  38.  1  Kings  vi.  1 ;) — 3.  After- 
wards, from  the  Building  of  the  Temple,  (1  Kings  ix.  10. 
2  Chron.  viii.  1,)  and  from  the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  Ju- 
dah  and  Israel ; — 4.  Then  from  the  commencement  of 
the  Babylonian  Captivity.  (Ezek.  i.  1,  xxxiii.  21,  xl.  1.) 
In  process  of  time  they  adopted,  and  for  one  thousand 
years  employed,  5.  The  sera  of  the  Selucidae,  which  in  the 
books  of  Maccabees  is  called  the  sera  of  the  Greeks  ;  in 
later  times,  ( 1  Mace,  xiii.42,  xi v.  27,)  they  computed  accord- 
ing to  the  years  of  the  Maccabean  princes  ;  and  since  the 
compilation  of  their  Talmud,  they  have  reckoned  their 
years  from  the  foundation  of  the  world. 


208        TRIBUTES  AND  TAXES  MENTIONED  IN  SCRIPTURE. 

CHAPTER  V. 

ON   TIIB  TRIBUTK8   AND   TAXES   MENTIONED    IN   THE   SCaiPTURES.— CONTRACTS, 
HOW   MADE. 

I.  Of  Tributes  and  Taxes. 

On  their  first  departure  out  of  Egypt,  the  Israelites  con- 
tributed, upon  any  extraordinary  occasion,  according  to 
their  several  ability  :  after  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle, 
half  a  shekel  was  paid  by  every  male  of  twenty  years  and 
upwards,  (Exod.  xxx.  13,  14,)  when  the  census,  or  sum  of 
the  people  was  taken.  On  tlieir  return  from  the  Babylo- 
nian captivity,  an  annual  payment  of  the  third  part  of  a 
shekel  was  made  towards  the  temple  worship  and  service; 
(Neh.  X.  32 ;)  and  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  two  drachmae 
were  paid  by  every  Jew,  whether  he  resided  in  Palestine 
or  elsewhere  :  besides  which,  every  one,  who  was  so  dis- 
posed, made  vokintary  offerings  according  as  he  or  she 
was  able.     (Mark  xii.  41 — 44.) 

To  supply  the  Jews,  who  came  to  Jerusalem  from  all 
parts  of  the  Roman  Empire,  to  pay  the  half-shekel  above 
mentioned,  with  the  current  coins,  money-changers  sta- 
tioned themselves  at  tables  in  the  courts  of  the  temple, 
and  chiefly,  it  should  seem,  in  the  court  of  the  Gentiles, 
for  which  they  exacted  a  small  fee.  It  was  the  tables  on 
which  these  men  trafficked  for  this  unholy  gain,  which 
were  overturned  by  Jesus  Christ.     (Matt.  xxi.  12.) 

While  the  Jews  were  in  the  height  of  their  prosperity, 
the  Moabites  and  other  neighbouring  nations  were  tribu- 
tary to  their  sovereigns.  Afterwards,  however,  tlie  Jews 
became  tributaries  to  other  nations.  For  a  short  time  they 
were  freed  from  paying  tribute  under  the  Maccabean 
Princes  ;  but  after  they  were  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
they  were  subjected  to  the  payment  of  a  capitation  tax  of 
a  denarius,  as  well  as  various  other  burdens,  which  they 
paid  with  great  reluctance.  This  will  account  for  tlieir 
haired  of  the  Publicans,  or  Tax  gatherers.  In  the  pro- 
vinces of  the  Roman  empire,  the  tributes  were  farmed  by 
Roman  knights,  who  had  und(?r  them  inferior  ofllcers. 
Some  of  these  are  called  chief  publicans,  (as  Zaccheus,) 
probably  because  tliey  were  receivers-general  for  large 
districts :  others  were  receivers  for  some  particular  post, 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS  OF  THE  JEWS,  ETC.  209 

or  place.  Such  was  Matthew,  who  is  simply  termed  a 
publican. 

II.  Of  Contracts  and  bargains  of  Sale. 

Among  the  Hebrews,  and  long  before  them,  among  the 
Canaanites,  the  purchase  of  any  thing  of  consequence  was 
concluded,  and  the  price  paid,  at  the  gate  of  the  city,  as 
the  seat  of  judgment,  before  all  who  went  out  and  came 
m.  (Gen.  xxiii.  16 — 20.  Ruth  iv.  1,  2.)  In  process  of 
time,  the  joining,  or  striking  of  hands  was  introduced  as  a 
ratification  of  a  bargain  and  sale.  This  usage  was  not 
unknown  in  the  days  of  Job,  (xvii.  3,)  and  Solomon  often 
alludes  to  it.  (See  Prov.  vi.  1,  xi.  15,  xvii.  18,  xx.  16, 
xxii.  26,  xxvii.  13.)  The  earliest  vestige  of  written  in- 
struments, sealed  and  delivered  for  ratifying  the  disposal 
and  transfer  of  property,  occurs  in  Jer.  xxxii.  10—12, 
which  the  prophet  commanded  Baruch  to  bury  in  an 
earthen  vessel  in  order  to  be  preserved  for  production  at 
a  future  period,  as  evidence  of  the  purchase,  (14,  15.) 
No  mention  is  expressly  made  of  the  manner  in  which 
deeds  were  anciently  cancelled.  Some  expositors  have 
imagined,  that  in  Col.  ii.  14,  Saint  Paul  refers  to  the  can- 
celling of  them  by  blotting,  or  drawing  a  line  across  them, 
or  by  striking  them  through  with  a  nail ;  but  we  have  no 
information  whatever  from  antiquity  to  authorize  such  a 
conclusion. 

CHAPTER  VL 

OF  THE  MILITARY  AFFAIRS   OF  THB  JEWS,    AND   OTHER    NATIONS  BIENTIONED 
IN    THE   SCRIPTURES. 

I.  Respecting  the  Military  Discipline  of  the  Jews, 

numerous  particulars  are  incidentally  dispersed  through  the 
Sacred  Writings,  for  a  full  account  of  which  the  reader 
is  necessarily  referred  to  the  author's  larger  work :  from 
which  the  following  leading  circumstances  are  selected. 

The  earliest  wars,  noticed  in  the  sacred  writings,  ap- 
pear to  have  been  nothing  more  than  mere  predatory  ex- 
cursions, like  those  of  the  modern  Bedouin  Arabs.  The 
wars  in  which  the  Israelites  were  engaged,  were  of  two 
kinds,  either  such  as  were  expressly  enjoined  by  divine 
command,  or  such  as  were  voluntary,  and  entered  upon 
by  the  prince  for  revenging  some  national  aflronts,  and 
18* 


5J1Q  MILITARY  AFFAIRS  OP  THE  JEWS,  ETC. 

for  the  honour  of  his  sovereignty.     After  their  departure 
from  Egypt,  the  whole  of  the  men,  from  twenty  years  and 
upwards  until  the  age  of  fifty,  (when  they  might  demand 
their  discharge  if  they  chose,)  were  liable  to  military  ser- 
vice, the  priests  and  Levites  not  excepted.  (Numb.  i.  3. 
22.     2  Sam.  xxiii.  20.     1  Kings  ii.  35.)     Like  the  mili 
tia  in  some  countries,  they  were  always  ready  to  assemble 
at  the  shortest  notice.     If  the  occasion  were   extremely 
urgent,  affecting  their  existence  as  a  people,  all  were  sum- 
moned to  war ;  but  ordinarily,  when  there  was  no  neces- 
sity for  convoking  the  whole  of  their  forces,  a  selection 
was  made.     This  mode   of  choosing  soldiers,  to   which 
there  are  numerous  allusions  in  the  Scriptures,  accounts 
for  the  rapid  formation  of  the  vast   armies,  of  which  we 
read  in  the  Old  Testament.     There  were,  however,  cer- 
tain exemptions  in  favour  of  particular  persons,  which  are 
specified  in  Deut.  xx.  5—8,  xxiv.  5.     The  officers,  who 
were  placed  at  the  head   of  the  Hebrew  forces,  appear 
not  to  have  differed  materially  from  those  whom  we  find 
in  ancient  and  modern  armies.     The  most  distinguished 
was  the  Captain  of  the  Host,  (2  Kings  iv.  13,)  who  pos- 
sessed great  power  and  influence,  sometimes  indeed  near- 
ly equal  to  that  of  the  sovereign,  and  who  appears  to  have 
been  of  the  same  rank  with  him  who  is  now  termed  the 
commander  in  chief  of  an  army.     After  the  establishment 
of  tlie   monarchy,  this  officer,  and   also  the  captains  of 
thousands,    hundreds,    &c.,    received    their    commissions 
from  the  sovereign;  (2  Sam.  xviii.  1.     2  Chron.  xxv.  5;) 
who  at  first  went  to  war  in  person,  and  fought  on  foot,  like 
the  meanest  of  his   soldiers,  until   David  being  exposed 
to  great  danger,  his  people  would  no  longer  allow  him  to 
lead  them  on  to  battle.     (2  Kings  xxi.  17.)     There  were 
no  horse  in  the  Israelitish  army  before  the  time  of  Solo- 
mon ;  nor,  though  mention  is  made  in  Scripture   of  the 
military  chariots  of  other  nations,  docs  it  appear  that  the 
Hebrews  ever  used  war  chariots.     Solomon,  indeed,  had 
a  considerable  number,  but  no  military  expedition  is  re- 
corded, in  which  he  employed  them.     No  information  is 
given  us  in  the  Scriptures  concerning  the  order  of  en- 
campment adopted  by  the  Israelites  after  their  settlement 
in  Canaan.     During  their  sojourning  in  the  wilderness,  the 
form  of  their  camp,  according  to  the  account  given  in 


MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


2n 


Numb.  ii.  appears  to  have  been  quadrangular,  having 
three  tribes  placed  on  each  side,  under  one  general  stan- 
dard, so  as  to  enclose  the  tabernacle,  which  stood  in  the 
centre.  Between  these  four  great  camps  and  the  taber- 
nacle, were  pitched  four  smaller  camps  of  the  priests  and 
Levites,  who  were  immediately  in  attendance  upon  it ;  the 
camp  of  Moses  and  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  (who  were  the 
ministering  priests,  and  had  the  charge  of  the  sanctuary,) 
was  on  the  east  side  of  the  tabernacle,  where  the  entrance 
was.  The  following  diagram,  which  is  reduced  from  the  au- 
thor's larger  work,  will  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  the  beau- 
tiful order  of  the  Israelitish  Encampment,  which  extorted 
from  the  mercenary  Balaam,  the  exclamation  related  in 
Numb  xxiv.  2.  5.  6. 


EAST. 


136,400  Men. 
FIRST  GRAND  DIVISION. 


JUDAH, 

74,600. 

Issachar,  and  Zebulun, 

54,400  57,400 


Z  O  ~3 


MOSES,     AARON 

And  the  Priests. 

p^ 

Ui 

^ 

c 

o 

w 

< 

^^^. 

<;« 

Pi 

>^x 

Pi 

a 

'      I-! 

M 
S 

< 
H 

ft 

MS 

•059  c 

S5rXIW0HSH3O 

«5     5ti 


■oot'?e  -ooc'os 

'uiiuBfuag  puB  'qasseuBj^ 

•ooe'ofr 

'KIVHHJ3 


•U9I\OOT'80T 


•XSSAV 


During  the  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness, Moses  made  various  salutary  enactments,  which  are 
recorded  in  Deut.  xxiii.  10 — 15.  Anciently,  the  Hebrews 
received  no  pay  for  their  military  service  :  the  Chere- 
thites  and  Pelethites  appear  to  have  been  the  first  stipen- 
diary soldiers.  During  the  monarchy,  however,  both 
officers  and  privates  were  paid  by  the  sovereign,  who  re- 
warded them  for  distinguished  achievements.  (See  2  Sam. 


212  MILITARY  AFFAIRS  OF  THE  JEWS,  ETC. 

xvili.  11.  Jos.  XV.  16.  1  Sam.  xviii.  25.  1  Chron.  xJ. 
6.)  In  the  age  of  tlie  Maccabees,  the  patriot  Simon  both 
armed  and  paid  liis  brave  companions  in  arms  at  his  own 
expense.  (1  Mac.  xiv.  32.)  Afterwards  it  became  an  es- 
tablished custom,  that  all  soldiers  should  receive  pay. 
(Luke  iii.  14.     1  Cor.  ix.  7.) 

From  various  passages  of  Scripture,  and  especially  from 
Isa.  ii.  4,  and  Mic.  iv.  3,  it  appears  that  there  were  mili- 
tary schools,  in  which  the  Hebrew  soldiers  learned  loar^ 
or,'in  modern  language,  were  trained  by  proper  officers  in 
those  exercises  which  were  in  use  among  the  other  na- 
tions of  antiquity.  Swiftness  of  foot  was  an  accomplish- 
ment highly  valued,  both  for  attacking  and  pursuing  an 
enemy.  The  Hebrews  do  not  appear  to  have  had  any 
peculiar  military  habit ;  as  the  flowing  dress,  which  they 
ordinarily  wore,  would  have  impeded  their  movements, 
they  girt  it  closely  around  them  when  preparing  for  bat- 
tle, and  loosened  it  on  their  return.  They  used  the  same 
arms  as  the  neighbouring  nations,  both  defensive  and  of- 
fensive ;  and  these  were  made  either  of  iron  or  of  brass, 
but  principally  of  the  latter  metal. 

At  first  every  man  provided  his  own  arms  ;  hut,  after 
the  establishment  of  regal  government,  the  sovereigns 
formed  depots,  whence  they  supplied  their  troops.  (2 
Chron.  xi.  12,  xxvi.  14,  15.)  The  defenswe  arms  con- 
sisted of  a  helmet,  breast-plate,  shield,  military  girdle,  and 
greaves,  or  boots  to  protect  the  feet  and  legs  from  stakes, 
which  were  stuck  into  the  ground  to  impede  the  march  of 
a  hostile  force.  Their  offensive  arms  were,  the  sword, 
spear,  or  javelin,  bows  and  arrows. 

The  onset  of  battle  was  very  violent,  and  was  made 
with  a  great  shout.  (i\umb.xxiii.24.  Exod.xxxii.  17.  1  Sam. 
xvii.  20,  52,  &c.)  When  the  victory  was  decided,  the  bo- 
dies of  the  slain  were  interred,  (1  Kings  xi.  15.  2  Sam.  ii. 
32.  2  Mac.  xii.  30,)  but  sometimes  the  remains  of  the  slain 
wore  treated  with  every  possible  mark  of  indignity ;  ( 1  Sam. 
xxxi.  9 — 12;)  and  various  cruelties  were  inflicted  upon 
the  iinhappy  captives,  from  which  not  even  women  and 
children  were  exempted.  (2  Sam.  iv.  12.  Judg.  i.  7. 
Isai.  iii.  17.     2  Kings  viii.  12.     Psal.  cxxxvii.  9.) 

On  their  return  home,  the  victors  were  received  with 
every  demonstration  of  joy.     (Exod.  xv.  1 — 21.     Judg. 


MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES.  213 

XI.  34.  1  Sam.  xviii.  7,  8.  2  Chron.  xx.  27,  28.)  Be- 
sides a  share  of  the  spoil  and  the  honours  of  a  triumph, 
various  rewards  were  bestowed  on  those  warriors  who  had 
pre-eminently  distinguished  themselves :  allusions  to  them 
occur  in  1  Sam.  xvii.  25.  2  Sam.  v.  8,  and  xviii.  11.  1 
Chron.  xi.  6. 

II.  At  the  time  the  apostles  and  evangelists  wrote, 
Judaea  was  subject  to  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  whose 
troops  were  stationed  in  different  parts  of  the  countr}^ 
Hence  numerous  allusions  are  made  to  the  Military 
Discipline  of  the  Romans,  in  the  New  Testament,  par- 
ticularly in  the  writings  of  Saint  Paul.  See  especially 
Eph.  vi.  11 — 17,  in  which  the  various  parts  of  the  ar- 
mour of  their  heavy  troops  are  distinctly  enumerated  and 
beautifully  applied  to  those  moral  and  spiritual  weapons 
with  which  the  true  Christian  ought  to  be  fortified. 

The  strictest  subordination  and  obedience  were  exacted 
of  every  Roman  soldier,  who  was  also  inured  to  great 
hardships,  and  was  not  allowed  to  marry.  To  these  cir- 
cumstances there  are  allusions  in  Matt.  viii.  8,  9,  and  2 
Tim.  ii.  3,  4  ;  and  Rev.  iii.  5,  probably  refers  to  tne  prac- 
tice of  expunging  from  the  muster-roll  the  names  of  those 
who  died,  or  were  cashiered  for  misconduct.  Upon  those 
who  pre-eminently  distinguished  themselves,  were  confer- 
red rich  and  splendid  crowns,  frequently  of  gold,  to  which 
there  are  allusions  in  Rev.  ii.  10,  James  i.  12,  1  Pet.  v 
4,  and  2  Tim.  iv.  8.  But  the  highest  military  honour 
which  any  one  could  receive,  was  a  Triumph :  in  which, 
besides  great  numbers  of  wagons  full  of  the  arms  and  the 
richest  spoils  which  had  been  taken  from  the  vanquished 
foe,  the  most  illustrious  captives — sovereigns  not  excepted 
— were  led  in  fetters  before  the  victorious  general's  cha- 
riot, through  the  streets  of  Rome,  amidst  the  applause  of 
the  assembled  multitudes.  After  the  triumphal  procession 
was  terminated,  the  unhappy  captives  were  generally  im- 
prisoned, and,  if  not  put  to  death,  were  sold  for  slaves. 
The  knowledge  of  these  circumstances  beautifully  illus- 
trates the  allusions  in  1  Cor.  ii.  14 — 16,  and  Col.  ii.  15. 


214 


BOOK  III.— SACRED  ANTIQUITIES   OF  THE   JEWS,  AND   OF  OTHER 
NATIONS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

OP  SACRED  PLACES. 

The  Patriarchs,  both  before  and  after  the  flood,  were 
accustomed  to  worship  Almighty  God,  before  altars,  and 
also  upon  mountains,  and  in  groves.  (Gen.  viii.  20,  xii.  8, 
xxi.  33,  and  xxii.  2.)  In  the  wilderness,  where  the  Israel- 
ites themselves  had  no  settled  habitations,  they  had,  by 
God's  command,  a  moving  tabernacle  ;  and  as  soon  as 
they  were  fixed  in  the  land  of  promise,  God  appointed  a 
temple  to  be  built  at  Jerusalem,  which  David  intended, 
and  his  son  Solomon  performed.  After  the  first  temple 
was  destroyed,  another  was  built  in  the  room  of  it,  (Ezra 
iii.  8,)  which  Christ  himself  owned  for  his  house  of  prayer. 
(Matt.  xxi.  13.)  There  were  also  places  of  worship, 
called  in  Scripture  High  Places,  used  promiscuously 
during  the  times  of  both  the  tabernacle  and  temple,  until 
the  captivity  ;  and,  lastly,  there  were  Synagogues  among 
the  Jews,  and  other  places  used  only  for  prayer,  called 
ProseuchcB,  or  oratories,  which  chiefly  obtained  after  the 
captivity  :  of  these  various  structures  some  account  will 
be  found  in  the  following  sections. 


Section  I.— Of  the  Tabernacle. 

Mention  is  made  in  the  Old  Testament  of  three  diffe- 
rent tabernacles,  previously  to  the  erection  of  Solomon's 
temple.  The  first,  which  Moses  erected  for  himself,  is 
called  the  tabernacle  of  the  congregation  ;  (Exod.  xxxiii. 
7  ;)  here  he  gave  audience,  heard  causes,  and  inquired 
of  Jehovah  ;  and  here  also  at  first,  perhaps,  the  publio 
offices  of  religion  were  solemnized.  The  second  taber- 
oacle  was  that  erected  by  Moses,  for  Jehovah,  and  at  his 


OF  SACRED  PLACES.  215 

express  command,  partly  to  be  a  palace  of  his  presence 
as  the  king  of  Israel,  (Exod.  xl.  34,  35,)  and  partly  to  be  the 
medium  of  the  most  solemn  public  worship,  which  the 
people  were  to  pay  to  him,  (26 — 29.)  This  tabernacle 
was  erected  on  the  first  day  of  the  first  month,  in  the 
second  year  after  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt.  The  third  public  tabernacle  was  that  erected  by 
David  in  his  own  city,  for  the  reception  of  the  ark,  when 
he  received  it  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom.  (2  Sam.  vi. 
7.  1  Chron.  xvi.  1.)  Of  the  socond  of  these  tabernacles 
we  are  now  to  treat ;  it  was  called  the  Tabernacle,  by 
way  of  distinction,  and  was  a  moveable  chapel,  so  con- 
trived as  to  be  taken  to  pieces,  and  put  together  again  at 
pleasure,  for  the  convenience  of  carrying  it  from  place  to 
place.  The  materials  of  this  tabernacle  w^ere  provided 
by  the  people,  who  contributed  each  according  to  his 
ability,  as  related  in  Exodus,  ch.  xxxv.  and  xxxvi. 

The  tabernacle  consisted,  first,  of  a  house,  or  tent, 
the  form  of  which  appears  to  have  resembled  that  of  our 
modern  tents,  but  much  larger;  and,  secondly,  of  an  open 
court  that  surrounded  it.  Its  constituent  parts  are  mi- 
nutely described  in  Exod.  xxv. — xxx.  and  xxxv. — xl.  from 
which  the  following  particulars  have  been  selected : 

1.  The  lent  itself  was  an  oblong  square,  thirty  cubits 
in  length  and  ten  in  height  and  breadth  ;  and  the  body  of 
it  was  composed  of  forty-eight  boards,  or  planks,  each  of 
which  was  a  cubit  and  a  half  wide,  and  ten  cubits  high, 
and  its  roof  was  a  square  frame  of  planks.  The  inside 
of  it  was  divided  by  a  veil,  or  hanging,  made  of  rich  em- 
broidered linen,  which  separated  the  Holy  Place  from  the 
Holy  of  Holies.  In  the  former  stood  the  altar  of  incense, 
overlaid  with  gold,  the  table  of  shewbread,  consisting  of 
twelve  loaves,  and  the  great  candlestick  of  pure  gold,  con- 
taining seven  branches  :  none  of  the  people  were  allowed 
to  go  into  the  holy  place,  but  only  the  priests.  The  Holy 
of  Holies,  so  called  because  it  was  the  most  sacred  place 
of  the  tabernacle,  into  which  none  went  but  the  high 
priest,  contained  in  it  the  ark,  called  the  ark  of  the  testi- 
mony, (Exod.  xxv.  22,)  or  the  ark  of  the  covenant.  (Josh. 
iv.  7.)  This  was  a  small  chest,  or  coffer,  made  of  shittim 
wood,  overlaid  with  gold,  into  which  were  put  the  two 
tables  of  the  law,  as  well  the  broken  ones,  say  the  Jews, 


215  OF  SACRED  PLACES. 

as  the  whole,  with  the  pot  of  manna,  and  Aaron's  rod 
that  budded.  (Heb.  ix.  4.) 

The  lid,  or  covering  of  this  ark,  was  wholly  of  solid 
gold,  and  called  the  mercy-scat :  at  the  two  ends  of  it 
were  two  cherubim,  or  hieroglyphic  figures,  the  form  of 
which  it  is  impossible  now  to  ascertain,  looking  inwards 
towards  each  other,  with  wings  expanded,  which,  embrac- 
ing the  whole  circumference  of  the  mercy-seat,  met  on 
each  side  in  the  middle.  Here  the  Shechinah,  or  Divine 
Presence,  rested,  both  in  the  tabernacle  and  temple,  and 
was  visibly  seen  in  the  appearance  of  a  cloud  over  it. 
(Lev.  xvi.  2.)  From  this  the  divine  oracles  were  given 
out  by  an  audible  voice,  as  often  as  Jehovah  was  consult- 
ed on  behalf  of  his  people.  (Exod.  xxv.  22.  Numb.  vii. 
89.)  And  hence  it  is  that  God  is  so  often  said,  in  Scrip- 
ture, to  dwell  between  the  cherubim.  (2  Kings  xix.  15. 
Psal.  Ixxx.  1.) 

2.  The  Tabernacle  was  surrounded  by  an  oblong  court, 
separated  by  curtains  from  the  camp  of  Israel.  The 
priests,  and  other  sacred  ministers,  alone  were  permitted 
to  enter  it;  the  people,  who  came  to  offer  sacrifices,  stop- 
ped at  the  entrance,  opposite  to  which  stood  the  brazen 
altar  for  burnt  offerings:  and  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the 
court  stood  a  capacious  brazen  vessel,  called  the  brazen 
laver,  in  which  the  priests  washed  their  hands  and  feet 
previously  to  performing  any  of  their  sacred  functions. 

The  tabernacle  being  so  constructed  as  to  be  taken  to 
pieces,  and  put  together  as  occasion  required,  it  accom- 
panied the  Israelites  in  all  their  progresses,  until  they  ar- 
rived in  the  land  of  Canaan.  There  it  was  set  up,  first 
at  Gilijal,  and  afterwards  at  Shiloh:  on  being  restored  by 
the  Philistines,  who  had  taken  it  and  deposited  it  in  the 
temple  of  one  of  their  idols,  as  related  in  1  Sam.  iv.  10, 
11,  v.,  vi. ;  it  remained  for  twenty  years  in  the  custody  of 
Abinadab,  of  Gibeah,  and  afterwards,  for  three  months,  in 
the  house  of  Obed-odom,  whence  David  brought  it  with 
great  solemnity  into  that  part  of  Jerusalem,  which  was 
called  the  city  of  David.  (2  Sam.  vi.  17.  1  Chron.  xy. 
25,  xvi.  1.)  ilere  it  remained  until  it  was  deposited  in 
the  temple  of  Solomon,  where,  having  been  sub.scquently 
removed,  it  was  attain  replaced  by  order  of  the  pious 
King  Josiah.  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  3.)     It  is  supposed  to  have 


OF  SACRED  PLACES.  21? 

been  consumed  in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebu" 
chadnezzar. 


Sbction  n.— Of  the  Temple. 


Representation  of  the  Golden  Candlestick,  from  the  Triumphal  Arch 
of  Titus. 

Two  Temples  are  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  1. 
That  of  Solomon ;  and  2.  That  erected  after  the  Cap- 
tivity. ^ 

19 


219  OF  SACKED  PLACES, 

I.  The  FIRST  TEMPLE  is  that  which  usually  bears  the 
name  of  Solomon;  the  materials  for  which  were  provided 
by  David  before  his  death,  though  the  edifice  was  raised 
by  his  son.  It  stood  on  Mount  Moriah,  an  eminence  of 
the  mountainous  ridge,  in  the  Scriptures  termed  Mount 
Sion,  (Psal.  cxxxii.  13,  14,)  which  had  been  purchased 
of  Araunah,  or  Oman,  the  Jebusite.  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  23, 
24.  1  Chron.  xxi.  25.)  The  plan,  and  whole  model  of 
this  superb  structure,  were  formed  after  that  of  the  taber- 
nacle, but  of  much  larger  dimensions.  It  was  dedicated 
by  Solomon  with  great  solemnity.  Various  attempts 
have  been  made  to  describe  the  proportions,  and  several 
parts  of  this  structure  :  but  as  no  two  writers,  scarcely, 
agree  on  this  subject,  a  minute  description  of  it  is  design- 
edly omitted.  It  retained  its  pristine  splendour  only  thirty- 
three  or  thirty-four  years,  when  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt, 
took  Jerusalem,  and  carried  away  the  treasures  of  the 
temple;  and,  after  undergoing  subsequent  profanations 
and  pillages,  this  stupendous  building  was  finally  plun- 
dered and  burnt  by  the  Chalda^ans,  under  Nebuchadnezzar, 
in  the  year  of  the  world  3416,  or  before  Christ,  584.  (2 
Kings  XXV.  13—15.  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  17—20.) 

II.  After  the  captivity,  the  temple  emerged  from  its  ruins, 
being  rebuilt  by  Zerubbabel,  but  with  vastly  inferior  and 
diminished  glory;  as  appears  from  the  tears  of  the  aged 
men  who  had  beheld  the  former  structure  in  all  its  gran- 
deur. (Ezra  iii.  12.)  The  secomd  tei^iple  was  profaned 
by  order  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  ;  (a.  m.  387,  b.  c.  163  ;) 
who  caused  the  daily  sacrifice  to  be  discontinued,  and 
erected  the  image  of  Jupiter  Olympus  on  the  aliar  of 
burnt  offering.  In  this  condition  it  continued  three  years, 
(1  Mace.  i.  62,)  when  Judas  Maccabeus  purified  and  re- 
paired it,  and  restored  the  sacrifices  and  true  worship  of 
Jehovah,     (a.  m.  3840.  b.  c.  160.) 

Some  years  before  the  birth  of  our  Saviour,  the  repair- 
ing, or  rather  gradual  rebuilding,  of  this  second  temple, 
•which  had  become  decayed  in  the  lapse  of  five  centuries, 
was  undertaken  by  Herod  the  Great,  who  for  nine  years 
employed  eighteen  thousand  workmen  upon  it,  and  spared 
no  expense  to  render  it  equal,  if  not  superior,  in  magni- 
tude, splendour,  and  beauty,  to  any  thing  among  man- 
kind.    But  though  Herod  accomplished  his  original  de- 


OF  SACRED  PLACES.  219 

sign,  in  the  time  above  specified,  yet  the  Jews  continued 
to  ornament  and  enlarge  it,  expending  the  sacred  treasure 
in  annexing  additional  buildings  to  it ;  so  that  they  might 
with  great  propriety  assert,  that  their  temple  had  been 
forty  and  six  years  in  building.   (John  ii.  20.) 

The  second  temple,  originally  built  by  Zerubbabel, 
after  the  captivity,  and  repaired  by  Herod,  differed  in  se- 
veral respects,  from  that  erected  by  Solomon,  although 
they  agreed  in  others. 

The  temple  erected  by  Solomon  was  more  splendid  and 
magnificent  than  the  second  temple,  which  was  deficient 
in  five  remarkable  things  that  constituted  the  chief  glory 
of  the  first  :  these  were,  the  ark  and  mercy-seat,  the 
shechiaah,  or  manifestation  of  the  divine  presence  in  the 
holy  of  holies,  the  sacred  fire  on  the  altar,  which  had 
been  first  kindled  from  heaven,  the  urim  and  thummim, 
and  the  spirit  of  prophecy.  The  second  temple,  however, 
surpassed  the  first  in  glory  ;  being  honoured  by  the  fre- 
quent presence  of  our  divine  Saviour,  agreeably  to  the 
prediction  of  Haggai,  (ii.  9.)  Both,  however,  were  erect- 
ed upon  the  same  site,  a  very  hard  rock,  encompassed  by 
a  very  frightful  precipice  ;  and  the  foundation  was  laid 
with  incredible  expense  and  labour.  The  superstructure 
was  not  inferior  to  this  great  work  :  the  height  of  the 
temple  wall,  especially  on  the  south  side,  was  stupendous. 
In  the  lowest  places  it  was  three  hundred  cubits,  or  four 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  in  some  places  even  greater. 
This  most  magnificent  pile  was  constructed  with  hard 
white  stone  of  prodigious  magnitude.  Of  its  general  dis- 
position some  idea  may  be  formed  from  the  plan  annexed 
to  the  Map  which  faces  page  163. 

The  temple  itself,  strictly  so  called,  which  comprised 
the  portico,  the  sanctuary,  and  the  holy  of  holies,  formed 
only  a  small  part  of  the  sacred  edifice  on  Mount  Moriah; 
being  surrounded  by  spacious  courts,  making  a  square  of 
half  a  mile  in  circumference.  It  was  entered  through 
nine  magnificent  gates  :  one  of  which,  called  the  Beauti' 
ful  Gate  in  Acts  iii.  2,  was  more  splendid  and  costly 
than  all  the  rest :  it  was  composed  of  Corinthian  brass,  the 
most  precious  metal  in  ancient  times.  The  first,  or  outer 
court,  was  called  the  Court  of  the  Gentile  a ;  because 
they  were  not  permitted  to  advance  any  further,  though 


220 


OF  SACRED  PLACES. 


they  were  allowed  to  enter  it.  Markets  were  held  here 
for  the  sale  of  incense,  salt,  animals,  and  every  other  ar- 
ticle necessary  for  the  Jewish  sacrifices.  Here  also  sat 
the  money-changers.  (Matt.  xxi.  ]2,  13.  Mark  xi.  15 — 
17.)  This  court  was  surrounded  by  a  range  of  porticoes, 
or  cloisters,  one  of  which  was  called  Solonon's  Porch. 
(John  X.  23.  Acts  iii.  11.)  The  south-east  corner  of  the 
roof  of  this  portico  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  pinnacle, 
whence  Satan  tempted  Christ  to  precipitate  himself.  (Mat. 
iv.  5  ) 

Within  the  court  of  the  Gentiles  stood  the  Court  of  the 
Israelites,  divided  into  two  parts,  or  courts,  the  outer  one 
being  appropriated  to  the  women,  and  the  inner  one  to 
the  men.  The  Court  of  the  Women  was  separated  from 
that  of  the  Gentiles,  by  a  low  stone  wall,  or  partition,  of 
elegant  construction,  on  which  stood  pillars  at  equal  dis- 
tances, with  inscriptions  in  Greek  and  Latin,  importing 
that  no  alien  should  enter  into  the  holy  place.  To  this 
wall  Saint  Paul  most  evidently  alludes  in  Eph.  ii.  13, 14. 
In  this  court  was  the  Treasury,  mentioned  in  Mark  xii. 
41,  and  John  viii.  20. 

From  the  court  of  the  women,  which  was  on  higher 
ground  than  that  of  the  Gentiles,  there  was  an  ascent  of 
fifteen  steps  into  the  inner,  or  men's  court;  and  so  called 
because  it  was  appropriated  to  the  worship  of  the  male 
Israelites.  In  these  two  courts,  collectively  termed  the 
court  of  the  Israelites,  were  the  people  praying,  each 
apart  by  himself,  for  the  pardon  of  his  sins,  while 
Zechariah  was  offering  incense  within  the  sanctuary. 
(Lukei.  10.) 

Within  the  court  of  the  Israelites  was  that  of  the 
priests,  who  alone  were  permitted  to  enter  it:  thence 
twelve  steps  ascended  to  the  Temple,  strictly  so  called, 
which  consisted  of  three  parts,  viz.:  the  Portico,  the  outer 
Sanctuary,  and  the  Holy  Place. 

1.  In  the  Portico  were  suspended  the  splendid  votive 
offerings,  made  by  the  piety  of  various  individuals,  which 
are  alluded  to  in  Luke  xxi.  5.  Similar  offerings  were 
common  in  the  temples  of  the  heathen.     From  this  porch, 

2.  The  Sanctuary,  or  Holy  Place,  was  separated  from 
the  holy  of  holies  by  a  double  veil,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  veil  that  was  rent  in  twain  at  our  Saviour's 


OF  SACRED  PLACES. 


221 


<irucifixion  ;  thus  emblematically  pointing  out  that  the  se- 
peration  between  Jews  and  Gentiles  was  abolished,  and  that 
the  privilege  of  the  high  priest  was  communicated  to  all 
mankind,  who  might  thenceforth  have  access  to  the  throne 
of  grace  through  the  one  great  Mediator,  Jesus  Christ. 
(Heb.  X.  19—22.) 

This  corresponded  with  the  Holy  Place  in  the  Taber- 
nacle. In  it  were  placed  the  Golden  Candlestick,  the 
Altar  of  Incense,  and  the  Table  of  Shew-Bread,  which 
consisted  of  twelve  loaves,  according  to  the  number  of  the 
tribes  of  Israel.  In  the  Hebrew,  these  loaves  are  collec- 
tively termed.  Bread  of  the  faces;  because  each  loaf,  being 
square,  had,  as  it  were,  four  faces  or  sides.  Various  fan- 
ciful delineations  have  been  given  of  these  articles :  ia 
the  vignette  at  the  head  of  this  section,  is  represented  the 
form  of  the  Golden  Candlestick,  as  it  was  actually  carried 
in  the  triumphal  procession  of  the  Roman  General,  Titus ; 
and  the  following  engraving  exhibits  the  table  of  shew- 
bread,  with  a  cup  upon  it,  and  with  two  of  the  sacred 


trumpets,  which  were  used  to  proclaim  the  year  of  Jubi- 
lee, as  they  were  also  carried  in  the  same  triumph.    They 
are  copied  from  the  plates  in  Reland's  Treatise  on  .he 
19* 


222  O^  SACRED  PLACES, 

Spoils  of  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,*  the  drawings  fof 
which  were  made  at  Rome,  upwards  of  a  century  since, 
when  the  triumphal  arch  of  Titus  (which  has  been  men- 
tioned in  p.  23,  supra,)  was  in  a  much  better  state  of  pre- 
servation than  it  now  is. 

3.  The  Holy  of  Holies  was  twenty  cubits  square.  No 
person  was  ever  admitted  into  it  but  the  high  priest,  who 
entered  it  once  a  year  on  the  great  day  of  atonement. 
(Exod.  XXX.   10.  Levit.  xvi.  2.   15.  34.  Heb.  ix.  2—7.) 

This  most  magnificent  temple,  for  which  the  Jews  che- 
rished the  highest  veneration,  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the 
Romans,  a.m.  4073,  (a.d.  73,)  on  the  same  day  of  ihe  same 
moiith  in  which  Solomon's  temple  had  been  razed  to  the 
ground  by  the  Babylonians 


Section  III. — Of  the  High  Places,  Proseuchae,  or  Oratories,  of  the  Jews. 

I.  The  High  Places,  which  are  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament,  were  places  appropriated  to  divine 
worship,  in  groves,  woods,  or  mountains,  first  by  the  pa- 
triarch's, and  afterwards  by  the  heathen  idolaters,  by 
whom  they  were  made  the  scenes  of  the  most  diabolical 
and  impure  rites.  As  the  Canaaniles,  among  whom  the 
Israelites  lived,  were  eminently  addicted  to  this  idola- 
trous worship,  a/?er  a  place  had  been  assigned  for  the 
worship  of  God,  it  became  unlawful  to  offer  sacrifices  upon 
these  high  places,  or  any  where  else,  but  in  the  place  that 
God  did  choose.  Hence  it  is  that  the  conduct  of  the  Is- 
raelites, both  kings  and  people,  in  offering  sacrifices  even 
after  the  erection  of  the  temple,  is  so  frequently  reprobated 
in  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles.  They  were 
indeed  removed  by  several  pious  kings,  and  particularly 
by  Josiah,  after  whose  time  they  are  not  mentioned  in 
sacred  history. 

II.  Though  public  worship  was  forbidden  to  be  offered 
in  any  but  the  appointed  place,  yet  mention  is  made,  in 
Scripture,  of  places  built  for  private  devotion,  and  resort- 
ed to  for  that  purpose  only.     These  have  been   termed 

•  De  Spoil  la  Hlerosolymltfttii  In  Kxcxx  Titlano  Romsp  Consplouls.  The 
llrsl  erlltlon  was  pilnlcd  al  lilrecht,  In  1710,  Bvo. ;  the  .secoud,  with  a  pre- 
Umlnury  dlsserlallon  and  notes,  by  Professor  Schultzc,  In  1765,  8vo. 


OF  SACRED  PLACES.  223 

pRosEUCH^,  or  Oratories.  From  the  proseucha,  (so  it 
should  be  rendered  in  Luke  vi.  12,)  where  our  Lord 
spent  a  whole  night  in  prayer,  being  erected  on  a  moun- 
tain, it  is  probable  that  these  edifices  were  the  same  as  the 
High  Places  already  noticed.  The  Jews,  who  were  resi- 
dent in  heathen  countries,  appear  to  have  erected  them 
in  sequestered  retreats,  commonly  on  the  banks  of  rivers, 
or  on  the  sea-shore.  The  proseucha,  or  oratory  at  Philippi, 
where  the  Lord  opened  the  heart  of  Lydia,  that  she  attend- 
ed unto  the  things  which  were  spoken  by  Paul,  was  by  a 
KivER  SIDE  ;  (Acts  xvi.  13,  14.  16  ;)  the  Jews  being  ac- 
customed, before  prayer,  to  perform  an  ablution. 


Section  rv, — On  the  Synagogues  of  the  Jews. 

The  Synagogues  were  buildings  in  which  the  Jews 
assembled  for  prayer,  reading  and  hearing  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  and  other  instructions.  Though  frequently 
meniioned  in  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
their  origin  is  not  very  well  known;  and  many  learned 
men  are  of  opinion  that  they  are  of  recent  institution.  In 
the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  synagogues  became  so  frequent 
that  they  were  to  be  found  in  almost  every  place  in  Judssa. 
Maimonides  says,  that  wherever  any  Jews  were,  they 
erected  a  synagogue.  Not  fewer  than  four  hundred  and 
eighty  are  said  to  have  been  erected  in  Jerusalem,  pre- 
viously to  its  capture  and  destruction  by  the  Romans.  In 
the  evangelical  history  we  find,  that  wherever  the  Jews 
resided,  they  had  one  or  more  synagogues,  constructed 
after  those  at  Jerusalem.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  syna- 
gogues had  any  peculiar /or7?z  of  structure:  there  were, 
however,  various  officers  whose  business  it  was  to  see  that 
the  duties  of  religion  were  decently  performed  therein. 
These  were,  1.  The  Rulers  of  the  Synagogue,  (Luke 
xiii.  14.  Mark  v.  22,)  of  whom  there  appear  to  have 
been  several :  they  regulated  all  its  concerns,  and  gave 
permission  to  persons  to  preach.  2.  Next  to  the  Ruler 
of  the  Synagogue  was  an  officer,  whose  province  it  was 
to  oflfer  up  public  prayers  to  God  for  the  whole  congrega- 
tion ;  hence  he  was  called  Sheliach  Zibbor,  or  the  Angel 
OF  THE  Church,  because,  as  their  messenger,  he  spoke  to 
God  for  them.     Hence  also,  in  Rev.  ii.,  iii.  the  ministers 


224  ^^  SACRED  PLACES. 

of  the  Asiatic  churches  are  termed  angels.  3.  The 
Chazan  appears  to  have  been  a  different  officer  from  the 
Shcliack  Zibbor,  and  inferior  to  him  in  dignity.  He  seems 
to  have  been  the  person,  who,  in  Luke  iv.  20,  is  termed 
the  Minister,  and  bad  the  charge  of  the  sacred  books  ; 
and  whose  office  it  was  to  hand  the  book  of  the  law  to  the 
person  who  was  to  read  it,  and  return  it  to  its  place. 

The  service  performed  in  the  synagogue  consisted  of 
three  parts,  viz. :  prayer,  reading  the  Scriptures,  and 
preaching,  or  exposition  of  the  Scriptures. 

1.  The  first  part  of  the  Synagogue  service  is  Prayer  ; 
for  which  some  learned  men  have  thought  that  the  Jews 
had  liturgies,  in  which  are  all  the  prescribed  forms  of 
synagogue-worship.  Though  the  eighteen  prayers,  used 
by  the  modern  Jews,  are  of  great  antiquity,  yet  they  can- 
not be  referred  to  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ. 

2.  For  the  more  commodious  reading  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, the  Law  was  divided  into  Paraschioth,  or  Sections, 
and  the  Prophets  into  Haphtoroth,  or  Portions  ;  of  which 
a  brief  notice  has  already  been  given  in  page  79. 

3.  The  third  and  last  part  of  the  synagogue  service  is, 
Exposition  of  the  Scriptures,  and  Preaching  to  the 
people.  The  first  was  performed  at  the  time  of  reading 
them,  and  the  other  after  the  reading  of  the  law  and  the 
prophets.  In  Luke  iv.  15 — 22,  we  have  an  account  of 
the  service  of  the  synagogue  in  the  time  of  Christ ;  who 
appears  to  have  taught  the  Jews  in  both  these  ways.  From 
this  passage  we  learn  that  when  Jesus  Christ  came  to 
Nazareth,  his  own  city,  he  was  called  out,  as  a  member  of 
that  synagogue,  to  read  the  haphtoroth,  that  is,  the  section 
or  lesson  out  of  the  prophets  for  that  day  ;  which  appears 
to  have  been  the  fifty-first  haphtoroth,  and  to  have  commen- 
ced with  the^r^^  verse  of  Isa.  Ixi.  Further,  he  stood  up  (as 
it  was  customary,  at  least  for  the  officiating  minister  to  do, 
outof  reverence  for  the  word  of  God)  to  read  ihescriptures  ; 
and  unrolled  the  manuscript  (or  opened  the  volume,  as  it 
is  rendered  in  Luke  iv.  17,),  until  he  came  to  the  lesson 
appointed  for  that  day  ;  which  having  read,  he  rolled  it 
up  again  (or  closed  the  book,  verse  20,)  and  gave  it  to  the 
proper  officer;  and  then  he  sat  down  and  expounded  it, 
agreeably  to  the  usage  of  the  Jews.  The  ancient  books, 
being  written  on  parchment,  or  vellum,  and  similar  flexi* 


SACRED  PERSONS.  225 

ble  materials,  were  rolled  round  a  stick,  and,  if  they  were 
very  long,  round  two,  from  the  extremities.  This  is  the 
case  in  the  vignette  inserted  in  page  71,^  which  will 
convey  some  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Synagogue 
Rolls  are  unrolled.  It  is  taken  from  the  original  and  very 
valuable  manuscript  in  the  British  Museum,  which  is 
described  at  length  in  p.  71,  supra. 

Those  who  had  been  giJilty  of  any  notorious  crime,  or 
were  otherwise  thought  unworthy,  were  cast  out  of  these 
synagogues,  that  is  excommunicated,  and  excluded  from 
partaking  with  the  rest  in  the  public  prayers  and  religious 
offices  there  performed  ;  so  that  they  were  looked  upon 
as  mere  Heathens,  and  shut  out  from  all  benefit  of  the 
Jewish  religion,  which  exclusion  was  esteemed  scan- 
dalous. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SACRED  PERSONS. 

Section  I.— Of  the  Jewish  Church  and  itsMembers. 

From  their  covenant  relation  to  Almighty  God,  the  whole 
Jewish  nation  are,  in  the  scriptures,  frequently  termed  holy; 
and  the  apostles,  being  Jews  by  birth,  (though  they  wrote 
in  Greek,)  have  often  applied  to  Christians  the  phraseology 
of  the  Old  Testament,  in  order  to  convey  to  them  accurate 
ideas  of  the  magnitude  of  God's  love  to  them  in  Christ. 

The  first  members  of  the  Jewish  Church  were  the  im- 
mediate and  lineal  descendants  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob  ;  who  professed  the  Jewish  religion  and  used  the 
national  language  wherever  they  might  reside,  and  whom 
St.  Paul  (Phil.  iii.  5,)  terms  Hebrews  of  the  Hebrews^  as 
opposed  to  the  Hellinists,  or  those  Jews  who  lived  among 
the  Greeks  and  spoke  their  language,  and  many  of  whom 
(as  Timothy,  Acts  xvi.  1,)  were  descended  from  parents, 
one  of  whom  only  was  a  Jew.  They  ^id  not,  however, 
exclude  such  persons  as  were  willing  to  qualify  them- 
selves for  participating  in  their  sacred  rites.  Hen  ce  they  ad- 
mitted Gentile  converts  to  Judaism,  who  are  often  termed 
strangers  and  sojourners,  or  proselytes.     The  Libertines^ 

*  Hence  is  derived  the  term  volume,  or  thing  rolled  up,  from  the  Latin 
word  volvo,  to  roll. 


226  SACRED  PERSONS. 

mentioned  in  Acts  vi.  9,  were  the  descendants  of  the  Li' 
berti,  or  those  Jews,  who,  havin<r  been  taken  captive  at  dif- 
ferent times  and  carried  into  Italy,  liad  subscqently  acquir- 
ed their  liberty.  The  Devout  men  ivhn  feared  God,  of 
whom  we  frequently  read  in  the  New  Testament,  were 
Gentiles  ;  who,  though  they  did  not  qualify  themselves 
for  full  communion  with  the  Jewish  church,  had,  neverthe- 
less, acquired  a  better  knowledge  of  the  Most  High  than 
the  Pagan  Theology  furnished,  and  who,  in  some  respects, 
conformed  to  the  Jewish  religion.  Of  this  description  was 
Cornelius  the  Centurion.  (Acts  x.) 

All  these  persons,  with  the  exception  of  the  last  class, 
were  members  of  the  Jewish  church,  participated  in  its 
worship,  and  regulated  themselves  by  the  law  of  Moses, 
(or  at  least  professed  to  do  so,)  and  by  the  other  ins})ired 
"Hebrew  books,  whence  their  sacred  rites  and  religious  in- 
struction were  derived.  No  person,  however,  was  allowed 
to  partake  of  the  sacred  ordinances  until  he  had  undergone 
the  rite  of  circumcision  :  wliich  sacrament  was  enjoined  to 
be  observed  on  the  eighth  day  after  the  birth  of  a  male 
child,  who  then  received  a  name.  (Gen.  xvii.  12.  Luke  i. 
59,  ii.  22.) 

In  the  initiation  of  proselytes  to  the  Jewish  religion, 
according  to  the  rabbinical  writers,  the  three  following 
observances  were  appointed,  namely,  circumcision,  bap- 
tism, and  the  offering  of  sacrifice. 

All  these  rites,  except  circumcision  were  performed  by 
the  women,  as  well  as  the  men,  who  became  proselytes  ; 
and  it  was  a  common  notion  among  the  Jews,  that  every 
person,  who  had  duly  performed  them  all,  was  to  be  consi- 
dered as  a  new-born  infant. 


Section  II.— On  the  Ministers  of  the  Temple,  and  other  Ecclesiastical,  or 
Sacred  Persons. 

On  the  establishment  of  the  Jewish  Commonwealth, 
the  tribe  of  Levi  was  specially  devoted  to  the  service  of 
God,  instead  of  the  first-born  of  the  tribes  of  Israel,  and 
was  disengaged  from  all  secular  labours.  The  honour  of 
the  priesthood,  however,  was  reserved  to  the  family  of 
Aaron  alone,  the  rest  of  the  tribe  being  employed  in  tho 


SACRED  PERSONS.  227 

inferior  offices  of  the  temple :  so  that  all  the  priests  were 
Levites,  but  all  the  Levites  were  not  priests. 

Originally,  the  Levites,  or  tribe  of  Levi,  were  divided 
into  the  three  families  and  orders  of  Gershomites,  Koha- 
thites,  and  Merarites  ;  (1  Chron.  vi.  16,  <fec. ;)  but  after- 
wards they  were  divided  by  David  (1  Chron.  xxiii.)  into 
four  classes. 

Their  principal  office  was  to  wait  upon  the  priests,  and 
be  assisting  to  them  in  the  service  of  the  tabernacle,  with 
its  utensils,  (which,  during  the  migrations  of  the  Israelites 
in  the  wilderness,  they  alone  were  permitted  to  carry  and 
to  set  up  when  the  camp  rested,)  and  afterwards  in  the 
service  of  the  temple  ;  so  that  they  were  properly  the 
ministers  and  servants  of  the  priests,  and  obliged  to  obey 
their  orders.  (Numb.  iii.  9.  1  Chron.  xxiii.  28.)  It 
was  their  duty  to  open,  close,  and  guard  the  temple,  to 
cleanse  the  sacred  vessels,  to  have  the  charge  ofi^  the  sa- 
cred loaves,  &c.  <^c.  Some  of  them  also  sang  psalms, 
while  otiiers  played  on  instruments,  but  all  were  divided 
into  companies,  over  whom  a  president  was  placed.  The 
Levites  had  under  them  persons  called  Nethinims^  who 
performed  various  laborious  services  in  the  temple. 

In  order  to  enable  the  Levites  to  devote  themselves  to 
that  service,  forty-eight  cities  were  assigned  to  them  for 
their  residence,  on  the  division  of  the  land  of  Canaan  ; 
thirteen  of  these  were  appropriated  to  the  priests,  to  which 
were  added  the  tithes  of  corn,  fruit,  and  cattle.  (Numb, 
xviii.  21 — ^24.)  The  Levites,  however,  paid  to  the  priests 
a  tenth  part  of  all  their  tithes ;  and  as  they  were  posses- 
sed of  no  landed  property,  the  tithes  which  the  priests  re- 
ceived from  them  were  considered  as  the  first  fruits  which 
they  were  to  offer  to  God. 

Next  to  the  Levites,  but  superior  to  them  in  dignity, 
were  the  ordinary  Priests,  who  were  chosen  from  the 
family  of  Aaron  exclusively.  They  served  immediately 
at  the  altar,  prepared  the  victims,  and  offered  the  sacri- 
fices. They  kept  up  a  perpetual  fire  on  the  altar  of  the 
burnt  sacrifices,  and  also  in  the  lamps  of  the  golden  can- 
dlestick in  the  sanctuary ;  in  short,  performed,  first  in  the 
tabernacle,  and  afterwards  in  the  temple,  every  thing  di- 
rectly connected  with  the  service  of  God.  And,  as  the 
number  and  variety  of  their  functions  required  them  to  be 


228  SACRED  PERSONS. 

well  read  in  their  law,  in  order  that  they  might  be  able  to 
judge  of  the  various  /e^rt/uncleannesses,  <fcc. ;  this  circum- 
stance caused  them  to  be  consulted  as  interpreters  of  the 
law,  (Hos.  iv.  6.  Mai.  ii.  7,  &c.  Lev.  xiii.  2.  Numb. 
V.  14,  15,)  as  well  as  judges  of  controversies.  (Dcut.  xxi. 
5,  xvii.  8 — 13.)  In  the  time  of  war,  their  business  was 
to  carry  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  to  sound  the  holy  trum- 
pets, and  animate  the  army  to  the  performance  of  its  du- 
ties. To  them  also  it  belonged  publicly  to  bless  the  peo- 
ple in  the  name  of  the  Lord. 

The  priests  were  divided  by  David  into  twenty-four 
classes,  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  7 — 18,)  which  order  was  retain- 
ed by  Solomon,  (2  Chron.  viii.  14,)  and  at  the  revivals 
of  the  Jewish  religion  by  the  kings  Hezekiah  and  Jo- 
siah.  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  2,  xxxv.  4,  5.)  As,  however,  only 
four  classes  returned  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  (Ezra 
ii.  36 — 39.  Neh.  vii.  39 — 42,  xii.  1,)  these  were  again 
divided  into  twenty-four  classes,  each  of  which  was  dis- 
tinguished by  its  original  appellation.  One  of  these  classes 
went  up  to  Jerusalem  every  week  to  discharge  the  sacer- 
dotal office,  and  succeeded  one  another  on  the  Sabbath- 
day,  till  tliey  had  all  attended  in  their  turn.  To  each  or- 
der was  assigned  a  president,  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  6 — 31.  2 
Chron.  xxxvi.  14,)  whom  some  critics  suppose  to  be  the 
same  as  the  chief  priests^  so  often  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament.  Tlie  prince,  or  prefect  of  each  class  appoint- 
ed an  entire  family  to  offer  the  daily  sacrifices  ;  and  at 
the  close  of  the  week,  they  all  joined  together  in  sacri- 
ficing. And  as  each  family  consisted  of  a  great  number  of 
priests,  they  drew  lots  for  the  different  offices  which  they 
were  to  perform.  It  was  by  virtue  of  such  lot,  tliat  the 
office  of  burning  incense  was  assigned  to  Zacharias,  the 
father  of  John  the  Baptist,  when  he  went  into  the  temple 
of  the  Lord.     (Luke  i.  9.) 

For  tlie  residence  of  tlic  priests,  thirteen  of  the  Levi- 
tical  cities,  already  mentioned,  were  assigned,  around 
each  of  which  they  had  tiiree  thousand  cubits  of  land  : 
their  maintenance  was  derived  from  tithes,  and  various 
other  offerings  enumerated  in  Levit.  vii.  (J,  10.33,34, 
Deut.  xviii.  3,  Numb,  xviii.  13.  15,  IC),  Levii.  xix.  23, 
24,  and  Numb.  xxxi.  28 — 41. 

Over  all  the  priests  was  placed  the  High  Priest,  who 


SACRED  PEllSONS.  f>^ 

enjoyed  peculiar  dignities  and  influence.  He  alone  could 
enter  the  Holy  of  Holies  in  the  tabernacle,  and  afterwards 
in  the  temple  :  the  supreme  administration  of  sacred 
things  was  confided  to  him  ;  he  was  the  final  arbiter  of  all 
controversies  ;  in  later  times  he  presided  over  the  sanhe- 
drin,  and  held  the  next  rank  to  the  sovereign,  or  prince. 
His  authorit}^  therefore,  was  very  great  at  all  times,  espe- 
cially when  he  united  the  pontifical  and  regal  dignities  in 
his  own  person.  In  the  Old  Testament  he  is  sometimes 
called  the  priest^  by  way  of  eminence,  (Exod.  xxix.  30. 
Neh.  vii.  65,)  and  sometimes  the  head,  or  chief  of  the  high 
priests,  because  the  appellation  of  high  priests  was  given 
to  the  heads  of  the  sacerdotal  families,  or  courses. 

The  pontifical  dignity,  in  its  first  institution,  was  held 
for  life,  provided  the  high  priests  were  not  guilty  of  crimes 
that  merited  deposition.  During  this  period  the  high 
priesthood  is  supposed  to  have  been  elective. 

The  first  high  priest,  after  the  return  from  the  capti- 
vity, was  Joshua,  the  son  of  Josedek,  of  the  family  of  Elea- 
zar  ;  whence  the  succession  went  into  a  private  Levitical 
family.  The  office  was  then  filled  by  some  of  the  princes 
of  the  Maccabean  family.  According  to  the  law,  it  was, 
or  ought  to  have  been  held,  for  life  ;  but  this  was  very  ill 
obeyed  under  the  Roman  government,  especially  during 
the  time  of  our  Saviour,  and  in  the  latter  years  of  the 
Jewish  polity,  when  election  and  the  right  of  succession 
were  totally  disregarded.  The  dignity,  sanctity,  and  au- 
thority of  the  high  priest  were  then  almost  annihilated; 
and  this  office  was  not  unfrequently  sold  to  the  highest 
bidder,  to  persons  who  had  neither  age,  learning,  nor  rank 
to  recommend  them  ;  nay,  even  to  individuals  who  were 
not  of  the  sacerdotal  race;  and  sometimes  the  office  was 
made  annual.  The  knowledsje  of  this  fact  will  explain 
the  circumstance  of  several  his^h  priests  being*  in  existence 
at  the  same  time,  or  rather  of  tlieir  being  several  pontifi- 
cal men,  (Annas  and  Caiphas,  for  instance,)  who,  having 
once  held  the  office  for  a  short  time,  seem  to  have  retain- 
ed the  difjnity  orijjinally  attached  to  the  name. 

Tlie  hiijh  priest,  who  was  the  'liief  man  in  Israel,  and 
appeared  before  God,  in  behalf  (>!"  the  people,  in  their  sa- 
cred services,  and  who  was  appointed  for  sacrifice,  for 
blessing,  and  for  intercession,  was  a  tvpe  of  Jesus  Christ, 
•20 


230  SACRED  PERSONS. 

that  great  high  priest,  who  offered  himself  a  sacrifice  for 
sin,  who  blesses  his  people,  and  who  evermore  liveth  to 
make  intercession  for  them.  The  term  priest  is  also  ap- 
plied to  every  true  believer,  who  is  enabled  to  offer  up 
himself  a  spiritual  sacrifice  acceptable  to  God  through 
Christ.     (IPet.  ii.  5.     Rev.  i.  6.) 

Next  to  the  Levites,  priests,  and  high  priests,  the  Of- 
ficers OF  THE  Synagogue  may  be  mentioned  here,  as 
being,  in  some  degree,  sacred  persons  ;  since  to  them  was 
confided  the  superintendence  of  those  places  which  were 
set  apart  for  prayer  and  instruction.  Their  functions  and 
powers  have  been  stated  in  pp.  223,  224,  supra. 

The  Nazarites,  or  Nazarenes,  (as  the  Hebrew  word 
Nazir  implies,)  were  persons  separated  from  the  use  of 
certain  things,  and  sequestered,  or  consecrated  to  Jeho- 
vah. They  are  commonly  regarded  as  sacred  persons  : 
a  notice  of  their  institute  will  be  found  infra^  in  page  243. 

The  Rechabites,  are  by  many  writers  considered  as 
a  class  of  holy  persons,  who,  like  the  Nazarites,  separated 
themselves  from  the  rest  of  the  Jews,  in  order  that  they 
might  lead  a  more  pious  life.  But  this  is  evidently  a  mis- 
take :  for  they  wtre  not  Israelites,  or  Jews,  but  Kenites, 
or  Midianites,  who  used  to  live  in  tents,  and  traverse  the 
country  in  quest  of  pasture  for  their  cattle,  as  the  Naba- 
thaean  Arabs  anciently  did,  and  as  the  modern  Arabians, 
and  Crim-Tartars  still  do.  Their  manner  of  living  was 
not  the  result  of  a  religious  institute,  but  a  mere  civil  or- 
dinance grounded  upon  a  national  custom.  They  derived 
their  name  from  Jonadab,  the  son  of  Rechab,  a  man  of 
eminent  zeal  for  the  pure  worship  of  God  against  idola- 
try, who  assisted  king  Jehu  in  destroying  the  house  of 
Ahab  and  the  worshippers  of  Baal.  (2  Kings  x.  15,  16. 
23.)  The  Rechabites  flourished,  as  a  comnumity,  about 
one  hundred  and  eighty  years  ;  but  were  dispersed  after 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nehuchadnez/ar.  Some 
of  their  descendants  are  said  to  have  been  lately  disco- 
vered in  Arabia. 

The  Prophets  were  eminently  distinguished  among 
the  persons  arcounted  holy  by  the  Jews:  tlii-y  were  raised 
up  by  God  in  an  extraordinary  manner  for  the  perform- 
ance of  the  most  sacred  functions.  Originally,  they  were 
called  Seers :  they  discovered  things  yet  future,  declared 


SACRED  THINGS.  231 

the  will  of  God,  and  announced  their  divine  messages, 
both  to  kings  and  people,  with  a  confidence  and  freedom 
that  could  only  be  produced  by  the  conviction  that  they 
were  indeed  authorized  messengers  of  Jehovah.  Tiie  gift 
of  prophecy  was  not  always  annexed  to  the  priesthood  ; 
there  were  prophets  of  all  the  tribes,  and  sometimes  even 
among  the  Gentiles.  The  office  of  a  prophet  was  not 
confined  to  the  prediction  of  future  events  ;  it  was  their 
province  to  instruct  the  people,  and  they  interpreted  the 
law  of  God  ;  hence  the  words  prophet  and  prophecy  are, 
in  many  passages  of  the  Scriptures,  synonymous  with  in- 
terpreter, or  teacher,  and  interpretation,  or  teaching.  Tiiey 
also  had  seminaries,  termed  Schools  of  the  Prophets, 
where  religious  truths,  or  the  divine  laws,  were  particu- 
larly taught.  It  is  unanimously  agreed,  both  by  Jews  and 
Christians,  that  Malachi  was  the  last  of  the  prophets  under 
the  Old  Testament  dispensation  :  and  it  is  a  remarkable 
fact,  that  so  long  as  there  were  prophets  among  the  Jews, 
they  were  not  divided  by  sects,  or  heresies,  although  they 
often  fell  into  idolatry.  This  circumstance  may  thus  be 
accounted  for.  As  the  prophets  received  their  communi- 
cations of  the  divine  will  immediately  from  God  himself, 
there  was  no  alternative  for  the  Jews  ;  either  the  people 
must  obey  the  prophets,  and  receive  their  interpretation  of 
the  law,  or  no  longer  acknowledge  that  God  who  inspired 
them.  When,  however,  the  law  of  God  came  to  be  ex- 
plained by  weak  and  fallible  men,  who  seldom  agreed  in 
their  opinions,  sects  and  parties  were  the  unavoidable  re- 
sult of  such  conflicting  sentiments. 


CHAPTER  III. 


8ACRED   THINGS,— ON   THE   SACRIFICES   AND    OTHER  OFFERINGS    OF  THE   JEWS. 

The  offerings  prescribed  to  the  Israelites  have  been 
divided  into  four  classes,  viz.:  Bloody  Offerings,  Un- 
bloody Offerings,  Drink  Offerings,  and  Oblations  of  dif- 
ferent kinds. 

I.  Bloody  Offerings  were  sacrifices  properly  and 
strictly  so  called  ;  by  which  we  may  understand  the  inflic- 
tion of  death  on  a  living  creature,  generally  by  the  effu- 


SACRED  TFIINGS. 

sion  of  its  bloor],  in  a  way  of  religious  worship,  and  the 
presentin»T  of  this  act  to  God  as  a  supplication  for  the 
pardon  of  sin,  and  as  a  supposed  mean  of  compensation 
for  the  insult  and  injury  offered  by  sin  to  his  majesty  and 
government.  In  all  sacrifices  of  this  class,  it  was  re- 
quired that  the  victims  should  be  clean,  that  is,  such  as 
nii(?ht  be  eaten.  Of  the  bird  tribe,  the  dove  was  the  most 
common  offering;  of  quadrupeds,  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats 
were  the  only  kinds  destined  for  the  aliar.  Further,  the 
Ticiim  was  to  be  without  blemish,  (Levit.  xxii.  22,)  and 
one  which  had  never  borne  the  yoke.  Being  found  im- 
maculate, it  was  led  to  the  altar  by  the  person  offering 
the  sacrifice,  who  laid  his  hands  upon  its  head  ;  by  which 
act  he  acknowledged  the  sacrifice  to  be  his  own,  and  that 
he  offered  it  as  an  atonement  for  his  own  sins,  by  which 
he  had  forfeited  his  life  to  the  violated  law  of  God.  The 
animal  being  immolated,  the  blood  was  caught  in  a  vessel, 
and  partly  sprinkled  round  about  upon  the  aliar ;  by  which 
the  atonement  was  made.  (Levit.  i.  5 — 7.)  The  remainder 
of  the  blood  was  poured  out  at  the  foot  of  the  altar  ;  pre- 
viously to  laying  the  sacrifice  thereon,  it  was  salted  for 
the  fire.  (Levit.  ii.  13.  Mark  ix.  46.)  At  first,  sacrifices 
were  offered  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  ;  but  after  the 
erection  of  the  temple,  it  was  not  lawful  to  offer  them 
elsewhere.  The  Jewish  sacrifices  were  of  three  kinds, 
VIZ.  : 

1.  The  Burnt  Offerings,  or  Holocausts,  were  free- 
will offerings,  wholly  devoted  to  God,  according  to  the 
prinntive  patriarchal  usage.  The  man  himself  was  to 
bring  them  before  the  Lord,  and  they  were  offered  in  the 
manner  just  described.  The  victim  to  be  offered  was.  ac- 
cording 10  the  person's  ability,  a  bullock  without  blen)ish, 
or  a  male  of  the  sheep,  or  goats,  or  a  turtle-dove,  or 
pigeon.  (Levit.  i  3.  10.  14.)  If,  however,  he  was  too 
poor  to  bring  either  of  these,  he  was  to  offer  a  inincha,  or 
meat-offering,  of  which  an  account  is  given  in  page  234. 
It  was  a  very  expressive  type  of  the  sacrifice  of  Chri.st, 
as  nothing  less  than  his  complete  and  full  sacrifice  could 
make  atonement  for  the  sins  of  the  world. 

2.  The  Peace  Offerings  (Levit.  iii.  1,)  were  also  free- 
will offerings,  in  token  of  peace  and  reconciliation  between 
Gud   and   man  ;   they  were  either  eucharistical,  that  is, 


SACRinCES,  ETC.  OF  THE  JEWS.  233 

offered  as  thanksgivings  for  blessings  received,  or  were 
offered  for  the  impetration  of  mercies.  These  offer- 
ings consisted  either  of  animals,  or  of  bread,  or  dough; 
if  the  former,  part  of  them  was  burnt  upon  the  altar,  es- 
pecially all  the  fat,  as  an  offering  to  the  Lord ;  and  the 
remainder  was  to  be  eaten  by  the  priest,  and  by  the  party 
offering.  To  this  sacrifice  of  praise,  or  thanksgiving, 
Saint  Paul  alludes  in  Heb.  xiii.  15,  16.  In  this  kind  of 
sacrifices  the  victims  might  be  either  male  or  female,  pro- 
vided they  were  without  blemish.  The  same  apostle  has 
a  fine  allusion  to  them  in  Eph.  ii.  14 — 19. 

3.  Sin  Offerings  were  offered  for  sins  committed, 
either  through  ignorance,  or  wilfully  against  knowledge, 
and  which  were  always  punished  unless  they  were  expi- 
ated. In  general  they  consisted  of  a  sin  offering  to  God, 
and  a  burnt  offering,  accompanied  with  restitution  of 
damage.     (Levit.  v.  2 — 19,  vi.  1 — 7.) 

4.  The  Trespass  Offerings  were  made,  where  the 
parly  offering  had  just  reason  to  doubt  whether  he  had 
violated  the  law  of  God  or  not.  (Levit.  v.  17,  18.)  They 
do  not  appear  to  have  differed  materially  from  sin  offer- 
inn^s.  In  both  these  kinds  of  sacrifices,  the  person  who 
ofl^ered  them  placed  his  hands  on  the  victim's  head,  if  a 
sin  offering,  and  confessed  his  sin  over  it,  and  his  trespass 
over  the  trespass  offering;  the  animal  was  then  consider- 
ed as  vicariously  bearing  the  sins  of  the  person  who 
brought  it. 

All  these  sacrifices  were  occasional,  and  had  reference 
to  individuals  ;  but  there  were  others  which  were  national 
and  regular,  daily,  weekly,  monthly,  and  annual. 

The  perpetual,  or  Daily  Sacrifice,  was  a  burnt  offering, 
consisting  of  two  lambs,  which  were  offered  every  day, 
morning  and  evening,  at  the  third  and  ninth  hours.  (Exod. 
xxix.  38 — 40.  Levit.  vi.  9— -18.  Numb,  xxviii.  1 — 8.) 
They  were  burnt  as  holocausts,  but  by  a  small  fire,  that 
they  might  continue  burning  the  longer.  With  each  of 
these  victims  was  offered  a  bread  offering,  and  a  drink 
offering  of  strong  wine.  The  morning  sacrifice,  accord- 
ing to  the  Jews,  made  atonement  for  the  sins  committed 
in  the  night,  and  the  evening  sacrifice  expiated  those  com- 
mitted during  the  day. 

The  Weekly  Sac fifice,  on  every  Sabbath-day,  was  equal 
20* 


5J34  SACKED  THINGS. 

to  the  daily  sacrifire,  and  was  offered  in  addition  to  it. 
(Numb,  xxviii.  9,  10.) 

The  Monthly  Sacrifice,  on  every  new  moon,  or  at  the 
beginning  of  each  month,  consisted  of  two  young  bul- 
locks, one  ram,  and  seven  lambs  of  a  year  old,  together 
with  a  kid  for  a  sin  offering,  and  a  suitable  bread  and 
drink-offering.  (Numb,  xxviii.   11 — 14.) 

The  Yearly  Sacrifices  were  thus  offered  on  the  great 
annual  festivals,  which  are  noticed  in  the  following  chap- 
ter, viz.  :  1.  The  paschal  lamb  at  the  passover,  which 
was  celebrated  at  the  commencement  of  the  Jewish  sacred 
year;  2.  On  the  day  of  Pentecost,  or  day  of  first-fruits  ; 
5.  On  the  New  IMoon,  or  first  day  of  the  seventh  month, 
which  was  the  commencement  of  their  civil  year ;  and, 
4.  on  the  day  of  expiation. 

II.  The  Unbloouy  Sacrifices,  or  Meat-offerings,  were 
taken  solely  from  the  vegetable  kingdom  :  they  could  not, 
regularly,  be  presented  as  sin-offerings,  unless  the  person 
who  had  sinned  was  so  poor  that  he  could  not  afford  to 
bring  two  young  pigeons,  or  two  turtle-doves.  They  were 
to  be  free  from  leaven,  or  honey,  but  to  all  of  them  it  was 
necessary  to  add  pure  salt,  that  is,  saltpetre. 

III.  Drink-Offkrings  were  an  accompaniment  to  both 
bloody  and  unbloody  sacrifices:  they  were  never  used 
separately;  and  consisted  of  wine,  which  appears  to  have 
been  partly  poured  upon  the  brow  of  the  victim,  in  order 
to  consecrate  it,  and  partly  allotted  to  the  priests,  who 
drank  it,  with  their  portions  of  both  these  kinds  of  of- 
ferings. 

IV.  Bosides  the  preceding  sacrifices,  various  other  ob- 
lations are  mentioned  in  the  sacred  writings,  which  have 
been  divided  itito  ordinary, or  common,  voluntary,  or  free 
oblations,  and  such  as  were  prescribed. 

1.  The  Ordinary  Oblations  consisted,  1.  Of  the  Shfw- 
bread,  which  has  been  already  noticed  in  p.  221  ; 
the  loaves  were  placed  hot,  every  Sabbath-day,  by  the 
priests,  upon  the  golden  table  of  the  snnctuiiry  before  the 
Lord,  when  they  removed  the  stale  loaves  which  had 
been  exposed  the  whole  of  the  preceding  week  ;  and,  2. 
Of  Incense,  which  was  composed  of  several  fragrant 
•pices,  prepared  according  to  the  commands  given  in 
£xod.  XXX.  34 — 36.     It  was  offered  twice,  daily,  by  ih© 


SACRinCES,  ETC.  OF  THE  JEWS.  236 

officiating  priest,  upon  a  golden  altar,  whereon  no  bloody 
sacrifice  was  to  come,  except  on  the  day  of  atonement, 
when  it  was  offered  by  the  high  priest.  During  this  of- 
fering, the  people  prayed  silently  without ;  (Luke  i.  10  ;) 
and  to  this  solemn  silence  St.  John  alludes  in  Rev.  viii.  1. 

2.  The  Voluntary,  or  Free  Oblations  were,  the  fruits 
either  of  promises  or  of  vows  ;  but  the  former  were  not 
considered  so  strictly  obligatory  as  the  latter,  of  which 
there  were  two  kinds  :  1.  The  vow  of  consecration^  when 
any  thing  was  devoted  to  God,  either  for  sacrifice  or  for 
the  service  of  the  temple,  as  wine,  wood,  salt,  &,c.  To 
this  class  of  vows  belonged  the  Corban,  reprobated  by  Je- 
sus Christ,  which  the  Pharisees  carried  so  far  as  to  exone- 
rate children  from  assisting  their  indigent  parents  (Mark 
vii.  9 — 11.  13;)  and,  2.  The  vow  of  engagement,  when 
persons  engaged  to  do  something  that  was  not  in  itself 
unlawful,  as  not  to  eat  of  some  particular  meat,  not  to 
wear  some  particular  habits,  not  to  drink  wine,  nor  to  cut 
their  hair,  &lc. 

3.  The  Prescribed  Oblations  were  either  First  Fruits, 
or  Tithes. 

(1.)  All  the  First  Fruits,  both  of  fruit  and  animals, 
were  consecrated  to  God  ;  (Exod.  xxii.  29.  Numb,  xviii. 
12,  13.  Deut.  xxvi.  2.  Neh.  x.  35,  36  ;)  and  the  first 
fruits  of  sheep's  wool  were  offered  for  the  use  of  the  Le- 
vites.  (Deut.  xviii.  4.)  These  first  fruits  were  offered 
from  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  until  that  of  Dedication,  be- 
cause after  that  time  the  fruits  were  neither  so  beautiful, 
nor  so  good  as  before.  Further,  the  Jews  were  prohibit- 
ed from  gathering  in  the  harvest  until  they  had  offered 
to  God  the  omer,  that  is,  the  new  sheaf,  which  was 
presented  the  day  after  the  great  day  of  unleavened  bread ; 
neither  were  they  allowed  to  bake  any  bread  made  of  new 
corn,  until  they  had  offered  the  new  loaves  upon  the  altar 
on  the  day  of  pentecost ;  without  which  all  the  corn  waa 
regarded  as  unclean  and  unholy.  To  this  St.  Paul  alludes 
in  Rom.  xi    16. 

2.  Besides  the  first  fruits,  the  Jew^s  also  paid  the  tenths, 
or  tithps,  of  all  they  possessed  ;  (Numb,  xviii.  21  ;)  they 
were,  in  general,  collected  from  all  the  fruits  of  the  earth, 
but  chiefly  of  corn,  wine,  and  oil,  and  were  rendered  every 
year,  except  the  sabbatical  vear. 


238  SACRED  TLMES  AND  SEASONS 

CHAPTER  IV. 

8ACRBD  TIMES  AND  SEASONS  OBSERVED  BT  THE  JEWS. 

In  order  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  numerous 
wonders  God  had  wrought  in  favour  of  his  people,  Moses 
by  the  divine  command  instituted  various  festivals,  which 
they  were  obliged  to  observe  :  these  sacred  seasons  were 
either  weekly,  monthly,  or  annual,  or  recurred  after  a 
certain  number  of  years. 

I.  Every  seventh  day  was  appropriated  to  sacred  re- 
pose, and  called  the  Sabbath  ;  although  this  name  is  in 
some  passages  given  to  other  festivals,  as  in  Levil.  xxv. 
4  ;  and  sometimes  it  denotes  a  week,  as  in  Matt,  xxviii.  1, 
Luke  xxiv.  I,  and  Acts  xx.  7.  It  was  originally  instituted 
to  preserve  the  memory  of  the  creation  of  the  world  ; 
(Gen.  ii.  3  ;)  and  when  God  gave  the  Israelites  rest  in  tiie 
land  of  Canaan,  he  commanded  the  Sabbath  to  be  statedly 
kept.  (Exod.  xx.  10,  II,  xvi.  23.)  Accordingly,  it  was 
observed  with  great  solemnity  ;  the  Jews  religiously  ab- 
staining from  all  servile  work.  (Exod  xx.  10,  xxiii.  12, 
&c.  &.C.)  It  was  therefore  unlawful  to  gather  manna  oa 
that  day,  (Exod.  xvi.  22 — 30,)  to  lit^ht  a  fire  for  culinary 
purposes,  and  also  to  sow  or  reap.  (Exod.  xx.w.  3.  Numb. 
XV.  32 — 36.  Exod.  xxxiv.  21.)  The  services  of  the  temple, 
however,  might  be  performed  without  profaning  tl.e  sabbath, 
such  as  preparing  the  sacrifices  ;  (Lev.  vi.  8 — 13.  Numb, 
xxviii.  3 — 10.  Matt.  xii.  5;)  and  it  was  also  lawful  to 
perform  circumcision  on  that  day.  (John  vii.  23.)  The  sab- 
bath conmienced  at  sun-set,  and  closed  at  the  same  time 
on  the  following  day.  (Matt.  vii.  16.  Mark  i.  32.)  What- 
ever was  necessary  was  prepared  on  the  latter  part  of  the 
preceding  day,  that  is,  of  our  Friday;  whence  tiie  day 
preceding  the  Sabbath  is  termed  the  preparation  in  Matt, 
xxvii.  62,  Mark  xv.  42,  Luke  xxii.  54,  and  John  xix. 
14.31.  42. 

We  know  not  with  certainty  from  the  Mosaic  writings 
wiiat  constituted  the  most  ancient  worship  of  tlic  Israelites 
on  the  Sabbath-day.  It  is,  iiowever,  evident  from  the 
New  TestannMit,  that  the  celebration  of  tliis  day  chiefly 
consisted  in  the  religious  exercises  wliich  were  then  per- 


OBSERVED  BY  THE  JEWS.  237 

formed :  though  there  is  no  injunction  recorded,  except 
that  a  burnt-offering  of  two  lambs  should  on  that  day  be 
added  to  the  morning  and  evening  sacrifices,  (Numb, 
xxviii.  9,)  and  that  tlic  shewbread  should  be  changed. 
(Levit.  xxiv.  8,)  In  the  synagogues,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  the  sacred  writings  were  read  and  expounded;  to 
which  was  sometimes  added,  a  discourse,  or  sermon  by 
some  doctor,  or  eminent  teacher.  (Luke  iv.  16.  Acts 
xiii.  15.) 

Prayer  also  appears  to  have  formed  a  part  of  their  sacred 
worship  in  the  synagogue,  and  especially  in  the  temple  : 
(1  Sam.  i.  9,  10.  1  Rings  viii.  29,  30.  33.  Psal.  xxviii. 
2.  Luke  xviii.  10  :)  the  stated  hours  were  at  the  time  of 
offering  the  morning  and  evening  sacrifice,  or  at  the  third 
and  ninth  hours;  (Actsii.  15,  and  lii.  1 ;)  although  it  was  the 
custom  of  the  more  devout  Jews,  as  David  (Psal.  Iv.  17,) 
and  Daniel,  (vi.  10.)  to  pray  three  times  a  day.  Peter 
went  up  to  the  house  top  to  pray.  (Acts  x.  9.) 

II.  Tl  e  Jewish  months  being  lunar,  were  originally  cal- 
culated from  the  first  appearance  of  the  moon,  on  which 
the  Feast  of  the  new  moon,  or  beginning  of  months,  (as 
th^  Hebrews  termed  it,)  was  celebrated.  (Exod.  xii.  2. 
Numb.  X.  10,  xxviii.  11.  Isa.  i.  13,  14.)  It  seems  to 
have  been  in  use  long  before  the  time  of  Moses,  who  by 
the  divine  command  prescribed  what  ceremonies  were 
then  to  be  observed.  It  was  proclaimed  with  the  sound 
of  trumpets,  (Numb.  x.  10.  Psal.  Ixxxi.  3.)  and  several 
additional  sacrifices  were  offered.  (Numb,  xxviii.  11 — 15.) 

Besides  the  Sabbath,  Moses  instituted  other  festivals: 
three  of  these,  viz.:  the  passover,  the  feast  of  pentecost, 
and  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  which  are  usually  denomina- 
ted the  Great  Festivals,  were  distinguished  from  the  Sab- 
bath, and  indeed  from  all  other  holy  days,  by  the  circum- 
stance of  each  of  them  lasting  seven  (one  for  eight)  suc- 
cessive days  ;  during  which,  the  Jews  were  bound  to  re- 
joice before  the  Lord  for  all  their  deliverances  and  mer- 
cies. (Deut.  xvi.  11 — 15.)  All  the  males  of  the  twelve 
tribes  were  bound  to  be  present  at  these  grand  festivals; 
(Exod.  xxxiv.  23.  Deut.  xvi.  16  ;)  and  for  their  encour- 
agement to  attend,  they  were  assured  that  "  no  man 
should  desire  their  land"  during  their  absence  :  (Exod, 
xxxiv.  24 :)  in  other  words,  that  they  should  be  secure 


23S  SACREl)  TIME8  AND  SEASONS 

from  hostile  invasion  during  their  attendance  on  religious 
worship: — a  manifest  proof  this  of  the  divine  origin  of 
their  reliL^on,  as  well  as  of  the  power  and  particular  provi- 
dence of  God,  in  working  thrice  every  year  an  especial 
miracle  for  the  protection  of  his  people. 

III.  The  first  and  most  eminent  of  these  festivals  was 
the  Passovkr.  instituted  the  nif^ht  before  the  Israelites' 
departure  from  Egypt,  for  a  perpetual  memorial  of  their 
signal  deliverance,  and  of  the  favour  which  God  showed 
them  in  parsing  over,  and  sparing  their  firsl-born,  when 
he  ^lew  the  first-born  of  the  Eiryptians.  (Exod.  xii.  J2 — 
14.  29,  30-51.)  This  festival"  was  also  called  \.\\e  feast, 
or  the,  days  of  iLidenvnud  bread;  (Exod.  xxiii.  15.  Mark 
xiv.  1.  Acts  xii.  3  ;)  because  it  was  unlawful  to  eat  any 
other  bread  during  the  seven  days  the  feast  lasted.  The 
name  was  also,  bv  a  metonymy,  civcn  to  the  lamb  that 
was  killed  on  the  first  day  of  this  feast,  (Ezra  vi.  20. 
Malt.  XX vi.  17.)  whence  the  expressions,  to  eat  the  pass- 
over  (Mark  xiv.  J2.  14.)  and  to  sacrifice  the  passover. 
(1  Cor.  V.  7.)  Hence  also,  St.  Paul  calls  Jesus  Christ 
our  passover.  (ibid.)  that  is  our  true  paschal  lamb.  But 
the  appellation,  passover,  belongs  more  particularly  to  the 
second  day  of  the  feast,  viz.:  the  fifteenth  day  of  the 
month  Nisan.  It  was  ordained  to  be  celebrated  on  the 
anniversary  of  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites.  This 
was  an  indispensable  rite,  to  be  observed  by  every  Israel- 
ite, except  in  particular  cases  enumerated  in  Numb.  ix.  1 
— 13,  on  pain  of  death  ;  and  no  uncircumcised  person 
was  allowed  to  partake  of  the  passover.  In  the  later 
times  of  the  Jewish  Polity,  the  custom  was  introduced, 
of  liberating  some  criminals,  in  order  to  render  this  festi- 
val the  more  interesting:  and  this  custom  had  become  so 
strong  that  Pilate  could  not  deviate  from  it,  and  therefore 
reluctantly  liberated  Barabbas.  (Malt,  xxvii.  15.  Luke 
xxiii.  17.  John  xviii.  30.)  The  particular  rites  with 
which  this  festival  was  to  be  celebrated,  are  specified  in 
Exod.  xii.  The  later  Jews  made  some  addition  to  the 
riles  prescribed  by  Moses  respecting  the  pasrhal  sacrifice. 
They  drank  with  it  four  cups  of  wine,  of  which  the  third 
was  called  the  cvp  of  blcss}n<r,  (alluded  to  in  1  Cor.  x.  16, 
compared  with  Matt.  xxvi.  27.)  After  which  they  sang 
the  hymn  called  the  "Great  Hallel,"  viz.:  Psalm  cxiii. — 


OBSERVED  BY  THE  JEWS.  239 

cxviii.  Sometimes,  when,  after  the  fourth  cup,  the  guests 
felt  disposed  to  repeat  Psalms  cxx. — cxxxvii.  a  fifth  cup 
was  also  drunk.  These  ceremonies  appear  to  have  been 
in  part  imitated  by  Jesus  Christ,  in  the  institution  of  the 
Eucharist.  The  paschal  victim  typified  Jesus  Christ,  his 
sufferings,  and  death :  not  a  bone  of  it  was  to  be  broken; 
a  circumstance,  in  which  there  was  a  remarkable  corres- 
pondence between  the  type  and  the  antitype.  (Exod.  xii. 
46.     John  xix.  33—36.) 

IV.  The  Second  Great  Festival,  was  the  Feast  op 
Pentecost,  which  was  celebrated  on  the  fiftieth  day 
after  the  first  day  of  unleavened  bread.  It  was  a  festi- 
val of  thanksgiving  for  the  harvest,  which  commenced 
immediately  after  the  passover.  On  this  account  two 
loaves  made  of  the  new  meal  were  offered  before  the 
Lord  as  the  first  fruits :  whence  it  is  called  the  day  of 
the  first  fruits.  The  form  of  thanksgiving  is  given  in 
Deut.  xxvi.  5 — 10. 

V.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  was  instituted  to  com- 
memorate the  dwelling  of  the  Israelites  in  tents,  while 
they  wandered  in  the  desert.  (Lev.  xxiii.  34 — 43.)  Hence 
it  is  called  by  St.  John,  ihe  feast  of  tents,  ((r/frji^oTn/yta,  skeno- 
pegia,  John  vii.  2.)  It  is  likewise  termed  the  feast  of 
ingatherings,  (Exod.  xxiii.  16,  xxxiv.  22.)  Further,  the 
design  of  this  feast  was,  to  return  thanks  to  God,  for  the 
fruits  of  the  vine,  as  well  as  of  other  trees,  which  were 
gathered  about  this  time,  and  also  to  implore  his  blessing 
upon  those  of  the  ensuing  year.  During  the  whole  of 
the  solemnity  they  were  obliged  to  dwell  in  tents,  which 
anciently  were  pitched  on  the  flat  terrace-like  roofs  of 
their  houses.  (Neh.  viii.  16.)  Besides  the  ordinary 
daily  sacrifices,  there  were  several  extraordinary  ones 
offered  on  this  occasion,  which  are  detailed  in  Numb. 
xxix.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  ceremonies  perform- 
ed at  this  feast,  was  the  libation,  or  pouring  out  of  water, 
drawn  from  the  fountain,  or  pool  of  Siloam,  upon  the  al- 
tar. As,  according  to  the  Jews  themselves,  this  water 
was  an  emblem  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Jesus  Christ  mani- 
festly alluded  to  it,  when  he  "  cried,  saying,  If  any  man 
thirst,  let  him  come  unto  me  and  drink."  (John  vii. 
37-39.) 

VI.  To  the  three  grand  annual  festivals  above  descri- 


240  SACKED  TIMES  AND  SEASONS 

bed,  Moses  added  two  others,  which  were  celebrated  with 
great  solemnity,  though  the  presence  of  every  male  Israel- 
ite was  not  absolutely  required. 

1.  The  first  of  these  was  the  Feast  of  Trumpets: 
it  was  held  on  the  first  and  second  days  of  the  month 
Tisri.  which  was  the  commencement  of  the  civil  year  of 
the  Hebrews.  This  feast  derives  its  name  from  the  blow- 
ing of  trumpets  in  the  temple  with  more  than  usual  solem- 
nity. (Numb.  xxix.  1.  Levit.  xxiii.  24.)  On  this  fes- 
tival, they  abstained  from  all  labour,  (Levit.  xxiii.  25.) 
and  ofl!ered  particular  sacrifices  to  God,  which  are  de- 
scribed in  Numb.  xxix.  1 — 6. 

•2.  The  other  feast  alluded  to,  was  the  Fast,  or  Feast 
OF  Expiation,  or  Day  of  Atonement;  which  day  the 
Jews  observed  as  a  most  strict  fast,  abstaining  from  all 
servile  work,  takino:  no  food,  and  afiicting  their  souls. 
(Levit.  xxiii.  27 — 30.  Of  all  the  sacrifices  ordained  by 
the  Mosaic  law,  the  sacrifice  of  the  nionement  was  the 
most  solemn  and  important:  it  was  ofi^ered  on  the  tenth 
day  of  the  month  Tisri,  by  the  high  priest  alone,  for  the 
sins  of  the  vvhole  nation.  On  this  day  only,  in  the  course 
of  ihe  year,  was  the  high  priest  permitted  to  enter  the 
sanctuary,  and  not  even  then  without  due  preparation, 
under  pain  of  death  ;  all  others  being  excluded  from  the 
tabernacle  during  the  whole  ceremony,  which  prefiirured 
the  grand  atonement  to  be  made  for  the  sins  of  the  whole 
world  by  Jesus  Christ.  The  particulars  incident  to  this 
solemnity  are  detailed  in  Levit.  xvi. 

VIL  Besides  these  various  annual  festivals,  which  were 
instituted  by  divine  command,  the  Jews  in  later  times  in- 
troduced several  other  feast  and  fast  days,  of  which  the 
following  were  the  principal: — 

1.  The  Feast  of  Purim,  or  of  Lots,  as  the  word  signi- 
fies, is  celebrated  on  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  days  of 
the  month  Adar,  (or  of  Vc-Adar,  if  it  be  an  intercalary 
year.)  in  commemoration  of  the  providential  deliverance 
of  the  Jews  from  the  cruel  inachinations  of  llaman,  who 
had  procured  an  edict  from  Artaxerxes  to  extirpate  them. 
(I'isth.  iii. — ix.)  On  this  occasion  the  entire  book  of 
Ejsther  is  read  in  the  synagogues  of  the  modern  Jews, 
not  out  of  a  printed  copy,  but  from  a  roll,  wliich  general- 
ly contains  this  book  alone.     All  Jews,  of  both  sexes,  and 


OBSERVED  BY  THE  JEWS.  ^41 

of  every  age,  who  are  able  to  attend,  are  required  to  come 
to  this  feast,  and  to  join  in  the  reading,  for  the  better  pre- 
servation of  the  memory  of  this  important  fact. 

2.  The  Feast  of  Dedication,  mentioned  in  John  x. 
22.  was  instituted  by  Judas  Maccabeus,  to  commemorate 
the  purification  of  the  second  temple,  after  it  had  been 
profaned  by  Antiochus  tlpiphanes.  (1  Mace.  iv.  52 — 59.) 
It  commenced  on  the  25ih  day  of  the  month  Cisleu,  and 
was  solemnized  throughout  the  country  with  great  re- 
joicings. 

VIII.  The  preceding  are  the  chief  annual  festivals  no- 
ticed in  the  sacred  writings,  that  are  particularly  deserving 
of  attention  :  the  Jews  have  various  others,  of  more  modera 
institution,  which  are  here  designedly  omitted.  We,  there- 
fore,proceed  to  notice  those  extraordinary  festivals,  which 
were  only  celebrated  after  the  recurrence  of  a  certain 
number  of  years. 

1.  The  first  of  these  was  the  sabbatical  year;  for,  as 
the  seventh  day  of  the  week  was  consecrated  as  a  day  of 
rest  to  man  and  beast,  so  this  gave  rest  to  the  land; 
which,  during  its  continuance,  was  to  lie  fallow,  and  the 
*'  sabbath  of  the  land,"  or  its  spontaneous  produce,  was 
dedicated  to  charitable  uses,  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  servants 
of  the  family,  by  the  way-farins:  stranger,  and  by  the  cat- 
tle. (Levit.  XXV.  1 — 7.  Exod.  xxiii.  11.)  This  was  also 
the  year  of  release  from  personal  slavery,  (Exod.  xxi.  2,) 
as  well  as.  of  the  remission  of  debts.  (Deut.  xv.  1,  2.) 

2.  The  Jubilee  was  a  more  solemn  sabbatical  year, 
held  every  seventh  sabbatical  year,  that  is,  at  the  end  of 
every  forty-nine  years,  or  the  fiftieth  current  year.  (Levit. 
XXV.  8— 10.)  It  commenced  on  the  evening  of  the  day 
of  atonement,  and  was  proclaimed  by  the  sound  of  trum- 
pet throughout  the  whole  land.  All  debts  were  to  be  can- 
celled ;  all  slaves,  or  captives,  were  to  be  released.  Even 
those  who  had  voluntarily  relinquished  their  freedom  at 
the  end  of  their  six  years'  service,  and  whose  ears  had 
been  bored  in  token  of  their  perpetual  servitude,  were  to 
be  liberated  at  the  jubilee  :  for  then  they  were  to  proclaim 
liberty  throughout  all  the  land,  unto  all  the  inhabitants 
thereof.  (Levit.  xxv.  10.)  Further,  in  this  year  all  es- 
tates that  had  been  sold  reverted  to  their  original  proprie- 
tors, or  to  the  families  to  which  they  had  originally  be- 

21 


242  ^N  THE  CORRUPTIONS 

longed  ;  thus  provision  was  made,  that  no  family  should 
be  totally  ruined,  and  doomed  to  perpetual  poverty  ;  for 
the  family  estate  could  not  be  alienated  for  a  longer  pe- 
riod than  fifty  years.  The  value  and  purchase-money 
of  estates,  therefore,  diminished  in  proportion  to  the  near 
approach  of  the  jubilee.  (Levit.  xxv.  15.)  From  this 
privilege,  however,  houses  in  walled  towns  were  except- 
ed ;  these  were  to  be  redeemed  within  a  year,  otherwise 
they  belonged  to  the  purchaser,  nolvviihslanding  the  jubi- 
lee, (ver.  30.)  During  this  year,  as  well  as  in  the  sabbati- 
cal year,  the  ground  also  had  its  rest,  and  was  not  culti- 
vated. 


CHAPTER  V. 

•ACRED    OBLIOATIONS   AND  DUT1B8. — OF  OATHS. — NATURB  AND   DIFFBRSNT   80RT8 
OP   VOWS. 

I.  Of  Oaths. — The  person  who  confirmed  his  asser- 
tion by  a  voluntary  oath,  pronounced  the  same  with  his 
right  hand  elevated  :  but  when  an  oath  was  exacted, 
whether  judically,  or  otherwise,  the  person  to  whom  it 
was  put,  answered  by  saying,  Amen,  Amen,  (So  let  it  be,) 
or,  Thou  hast  said  it.  (Numb.  v.  19 — 22.  Deut.  xxvii.  15 
— 26.  Matt.  xxvi.  64.)  In  the  lime  of  Christ,  the  Jews 
were  in  the  habit  of  swearing  by  the  altar,  by  Jerusalem, 
by  themselves,  &.c.  &.c.  ;  and  because  the  sacred  name  of 
God  was  not  mentioned  in  such  oaths,  they  considered 
them  as  imposing  little,  if  any  deception.  Such  fraudu- 
lent conduct  is  severely  censured  by  Jesus  Christ  in  Matt. 
V.  33—37,  and  xxiii.  16—22. 

II.  Nature  and  different  kinds  of  Vows. 

A  Vow  is  a  religious  engagement,  or  promise,  volunta- 
rily undertaken  by  a  person  towards  Almighty  God  :  to 
render  it  valid,  Moses  requires  that  it  be  actually  uttered 
with  the  n)ouih,  and  not  merely  in  the  heart;  (Numb. 
XXX.  3  7.  9.  13.  Deut.  xxiii.  24;)  and  in  Deut.  xxiii.  18, 
he  prohibits  the  ofH^ring  of  what  is  acquired  by  impure 
means.  Two  sorts  of  Vows  are  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Tf'stariionl ;   viz.  : 

I.  The  Cukrkm,  or  Ir  remissible  Void:  it  was  the  most 
Bolemn  of  all,  and  was  accompanied  with  a  form  of  exe- 


SACRED  OBLIGATIONS  AND  DUTIEX  243 

cration.  This  vow  is  no  where  enjoined  by  Moses.  The 
species  of  cherem  with  which  we  are  best  acquainted,  was 
the  previous  devotement  to  God  of  hostile  cities,  against 
which  they  intended  to  proceed  with  extreme  severity; 
and  that  with  a  view  the  more  to  inflame  the  minds 
of  the  people  to  war.  In  such  cases,  not  only  were  all 
the  inhabitants  put  to  death,  but  also,  according  as  the 
terms  of  the  vow  declared,  no  booty  was  made  by  any  Is- 
raelite ;  the  beasts  were  slain  ;  what  would  not  burn,  as 
gold,  silver,  and  other  metals,  was  added  to  the  treasure 
of  the  sanctuary;  and  every  thing  else,  with  the  whole 
city,  burnt,  and  an  imprecation  pronounced  upon  any  at- 
tempt that  should  ever  be  made  to  rebuild  it.  Of  this  the 
history  of  Jericho  (Josh.  vi.  17 — 19.  21 — 24,  and  vii.  1. 
12 — 26,)  furnishes  the  most  remarkable  example. 

2.  The  common  vows  were  divided  into  two  sorts,  viz.  : 
1.  Vows  of  dedication;  and,  2.  Vows  of  self-interdiction, 
or  abstinence. 

i.  The  Neder,  or  vow,  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the  word, 
was  when  a  person  engaged  to  do  any  thing,  as,  for  in- 
stance, to  bring  an  offering  to  God  ;  or  otherwise  to  dedi- 
cate any  thing  unto  him.  Things  vowed  in  this  way, 
were,  1.  Unclean  beasts.  These  might  be  estimated  by 
the  priest,  and  redeemed  by  the  vower,  by  the  addition  of 
one-fifth  to  the  value.  (Lev.  xxvii.  11 — 13.)  2.  Chan 
beasts  used  for  offerings.  Here  there  was  no  right  of  re- 
demption ;  nor  could  the  beasts  be  exchanged  for  others, 
under  the  penalty  of  both  being  forfeited,  and  belonging 
to  the  Lord.  (Lev.  xxvii.  9,  10.)  3.  Lands  and  houses. 
These  had  the  privilege  of  valuation  and  redemption. 
(Lev.  xxvii.  14 — 24.)  To  these  we  have  to  add,  4.  The 
person  of  the  vower  himself  with  the  like  privilege.  (Lev, 
xxvii.  1 — 8.) 

ii.  Vows  of  Self-interdiction,  or  self-denial,  were, 
when  a  person  engaged  to  abstain  from  wine,  food,  or  any 
other  thing.  To  this  class  of  vows  may  be  referred  the 
Nazareate,  or  Nazariteship,  the  statutes  respecting  which 
are  related  in  Numb.  vi.  The  Nazarites  were  required 
to  abstain  from  wine,  fermented  liquors,  and  every  thing 
made  of  grapes,  to  let  their  hair  grow,  and  not  to  defile 
themselves  by  touching  the  dead  ;  and  if  any  person  had 
accidentally  expired  in  their  presence,  the  Nazariies  of 


244  SACRED  OBLIGATIONS  AND  DUTIES. 

the  second  class  were  obliged  to  recommence  their  Naza* 
riteship. 

Similar  to  the  Nazareate  was  the  vow  frequently  made 
by  devout  Jews,  on  their  recovery  from  sickness,  or  de- 
liverance from  danger,  or  distress  :  who,  for  thirty  days 
before  they  offered  sacrifices,  abj^tained  from  wine,  and 
shaved  the  hair  of  their  head.  This  usage  illustrates  the 
conduct  of  St.  Paul,  as  related  in  Acts  xvii.  18. 

III.  The  Purifications  of  the  Jews  were  various, 
and  the  objects  of  them  were  either  persons,  or  things 
dedicated  to  divine  worship.  The  Jews  had  two  sorts  of 
washing;  one,  of  the  whole  body  by  wuners ion ^ -which 
was  uaed  by  the  priests  at  their  consecration,  and  by  the 
proselytes  at  their  initiation  ; — the  other,  of  the  hands,  or 
feet,  called  dippings  or  pouring  of  icatti\,  and  which  was 
of  daily  use,  not  only  for  the  hands,  and  feet,  but  also  for 
the  cups  and  other  vessels  used  at  their  meals.  (Matt.  xv. 
2.  Mark.  vii.  3,  4.  John  ii.  6.)  To  these  two  modes  of 
purification,  Jesus  Christ  seems  to  allude  in  John  xiii.  10. 

W .  In  the  Mosaic  law,  those  persons  are  termed  un- 
clean^ whom  others  were  obliged  to  avoid  touchinjr,  or 
even  meeting,  unless  they  chose  to  be  then)selves  defiled, 
that  is,  cut  off  from  all  intercourse  with  their  brethren  ; 
and  who,  besides,  were  bound  to  abstain  from  frequent- 
ing the  place  where  divine  service  and  the  offering-feasts 
were  held,  under  penalties  still  more  severe. 

The  duration  and  degrees  of  impurity  were  different. 
In  some  instances,  by  the  use  of  certain  ceremonies,  an 
unclean  person  became  purified  at  sunset ;  in  others,  this 
did  not  take  place,  until  eight  days  after  the  physical  cause 
of  defilement  ceased.  Lepers  were  obliged  to  live  in  a 
detached  situation, separate  from  other  people,  and  to  keep 
themselves  actually  at  a  distance  fron)  them.  They  were 
distinguished  by  a  peculiar  dress  ;  and  if  any  person  ap- 
proached, they  were  bound  to  give  him  warning,  by  cry- 
ing out.  Unclean!  unclean!  (Jther  polluted  persons,  again, 
could  not  directly  touch  those  that  were  clean,  without 
defiling  them  in  like  manner,  and  were  obliged  to  remain 
without  the  camp^  that  they  miL^it  not  be  in  their  way. 
(Numb.  v.  1 — 4.)  F'Jeven  different  species  of  impurity 
are  enumerated  in  the  Levitical  law,  to  which  the  later 
Jews  added  many  others.     But  the  severest  of  all  was  tho 


ON  THE  CORRUPTIONS,  Elv.  245 

Leprosy^  an  infectious  disease  of  slow,  and  imperceptibls 
progress,  beginning  very  insidiously  and  gently,  until  at 
length  it  became  incurable,  and  most  ofl'ensively  loath- 
some. The  Mosaic  statutes  respecting  this  malady,  are 
recorded  in  Levit.  xiii.  xiv.  ISunib.  v.  1 — 4,  and  Deut. 
xxiv.  8,  9.  The  leprosy  has  ever  been  considered  as  a 
lively  emblem  of  that  moral  taint,  or  corruption  of  the  na- 
ture of  every  man,  that  naturally  is  engendered  of  the  nff- 
spring  of  Adam  ;*  as  the  sacrifices,  which  were  to  be 
offered  by  the  healed  leper,  prefigured  tluit  "spotless  Lamb 
of  God  that  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ON   THE   CORRUPTIONS   OF   RELIGION  BY   THB  JEWS. 

I.  On  the  Idolatry  of  the  Jews. — II.  Jewish  Sects,  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament. — HI.  Extreme  corruption  of  the  Jewish  People  al  the  timt 
f  Christ's  Biith. 

I.  Idolatry  of  the  Jews. 

Idolatry  is  the  superstitious  worship  of  idols,  or  false 
gods.  From  Gen.  vi.  5,  compared  with  Rom.  i.  23,  there 
is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  practised  before  the 
flood  ;  and  this  conjecture  is  confirmed  by  the  apostle 
Jude,  (ver.  4,)  who,  describing  the  character  of  certain 
men  in  his  days,  that  denied  the  only  Lord  God^  adds,  in 
the  eleventh  verse  of  his  epistle.  Wo  unto  them^fur  they 
are  gone  into  the  way  of  Cain ;  whence  it  may  be  infer- 
red that  Cain  and  his  descendants  were  the  first  who 
threw  off  the  sense  of  a  God,  and  worshipped  the  crea- 
ture instead  of  the  Creator.  The  heavenly  bodies  were 
the  first  objects  of  idolatrous  worship,  and  Mesopotamia 
and  Chaldsea  were  the  countries  where  it  chiefiy  prevail- 
ed after  the  deluge,  whence  it  spread  into  Canaan,  Egypt, 
and  other  countries.  Although  Moses,  by  the  command 
and  instruction  of  God,  had  given  to  the  Israelites  such  a 
religion  as  no  other  nation  possessed,  and  notwithstanding 
all  his  laws  were  directed  to  preserve  them  from  idolatry, 
}  et,  so  wayward  were  the  Israelites,  that,  almost  immedi- 

•  Article  IX.  of  the  Confession  of  the  Anglican  Church. 
21 


246  ^^  THE  CORRUPTIONS 

ately  after  their  departure  from  Egypt,  we  find  them  wor-» 
shipping  idols.  (Exod.  xxxii.  1.  Psa).  cvi.  19,  20.  Acts  vii. 
41 — 43.)  Soon  alter  their  entrance  into  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan, they  adopted  various  deities  that  were  worshipped 
by  the  Canaanites  and  other  neighhouring  nations;  (Judg, 
ii.  13,  viii.  33  ;)  for  which  base  ingratitude,  they  were 
severely  punished.  And,  after  the  division  of  the  two 
kingdoms,  it  is  well  known,  that,  witli  the  exception  of  a 
few  short  intervals,  both  the  sovereigns  and  people  of  Is- 
rael, were  wholly  given  to  idolatry  :  nor  were  the  people 
of  Judah,  exempt  from  the  worship  of  strange  gods,  as  the 
frequent  re})roofs  of  the  prophets  abundantly  testify.  At 
length,  however,  become  wiser  by  the  severe  discipline 
they  had  received,  the  tribes  that  returned  into  their  native 
country  from  the  Babylonian  captivity,  wholly  renounced 
idolatry  ;  and  thenceforth,  uniformly  evinced  the  most 
deeply  rooted  aversion  from  all  strange  deities,  and  foreign 
modes  of  worship.  This  great  reformation,  was  accom- 
plished by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  and  the  eminent  men  who 
accompanied,  or  succeeded  them  ;  but,  in  the  progress  of 
time,  though  the  exterior  of  piety  was  maintained,  the 
*'  power  of  godliness"  was  lost  ;  and  we  learn  from  the 
New  Testament,  that,  during  our  Saviour's  ministry,  the 
Jews  were  divided  Into  various  religious  parties,  which 
widely  differed  in  opinion,  and  pursued  each  other  with 
the  fiercest  animosity,  and  with  implacable  hatred. 

II.  Of  tliese  Sects,  and  their  respective  tenets,  to 
which  there  are  frequent  allusions  in  the  New  Testament, 
we  are  now  to  give  a  concise  account. 

.  The  sect  of  the  Sadducees  derived  its  name  from 
Sadok,  a  pupil  of  Antigonus  Sochaeus,  president  of  the 
sanhedrin,  or  great  council  ;  who  flourished  about  two 
hundred  and  sixty  years  before  the  Christian  aera.  They 
disregarded  all  the  traditions  and  unwritten  laws,  which 
the  Piiarisees  pri/x'd  so  highly,  and  professed  to  consider 
the  Scriptures,  as  the  only  source  and  rule  of  the  Jewish 
religion.  They  denied  the  existence  of  angels  and  spirits, 
consid(!red  the  soul  as  dying  with  the  body,  and  conse- 
qu(.'ntly  adniitted  of  no  future  state  of  rewards  and  pun- 
ishments. The  tenets  of  this  sect,  which  was  small  in 
point  of  numbers,  were  not  so  acceptable  to  the  people  as 
tliuse  of  tiic  Pharisees. 


OF  RELIGION  BY  THE  JEWS.  247 

2.  The  Pharisees  are  supposed  to  have  appeared  not 
long  after  tho  Sadducees.  They  were  the  most  nume" 
rous,  distinguished,  and  popular  sect  among  the  Jews. 
They  derived  their  name  from  the  Hebrew  word  Pha-> 
rash^  wiiich  signifies  separated^  or  set  apart,  because  they 
separated  themselves  from  the  rest  of  the  Jews,  to  supe- 
rior strictness  in  religious  observances.  They  boasted 
that,  from  their  accurate  knowledge  of  religion,  they  were 
the  favourites  of  heaven;  and  thus,  trusting  in  themselves 
that  they  were  righteous,  despised  others.  (Luke  xi.  52, 
xviii.  9.  11.) 

Though  they  professed  to  esteem  the  written  books  of 
the  Gld  Testament  as  the  sources  of  the  Jewish  religion, 
yet  they  also  attributed  great  and  equal  authority  to  tra- 
ditional precepts,  relating  principally  to  external  rites. 
They  held  the  soul  to  be  immortal,  and  the  doctrine  of 
the  resurrection  of  the  body ;  but  they  believed  that  all 
things  were  controlled  by  fate.  They  rigidly  interpreted 
the  Mosaic  Law,  but  not  unfrequently  violated  its  spirit 
by  their  traditional  and  philosophical  expositions.  They 
were  zealous  in  making  proselytes  ;  and  their  professed 
sanctity  gave  them  great  influence  among  the  common 
people,  especially  with  the  female  part  of  the  community. 
Their  general  hypocrisy  and  profligacy,  are  severely  ar- 
raiLHied  by  Jesus  Christ. 

3.  The  EssENES,  who  were  the  third  principal  sect 
among  the  Jews,  differed  in  many  respects  from  the  Pha- 
risees and  Sadducees,  both  in  doctrines  and  in  practice. 
They  were  divided  into  two  classes  :  1.  The  practiccl, 
who  lived  in  society,  (and  some  of  whom  were  married,) 
though,  it  appears,  with  much  circumspection.  These 
dwelt  in  cities  and  their  neighbourhoods,  and  applied 
themselves  to  husbandry,  and  other  innocent  occupations 
2.  The  contemplative  Essenes,  who  were  also  called 
Therapeutae,  or  Physicians,  from  their  application  prin- 
cipally to  the  cure  of  the  diseases  of  the  soul,  devoted 
themselves  wholly  to  meditation,  and  avoided  living  in 
great  towns,  as  unfavourable  to  a  contemplative  life.  But 
both  classes  were  exceedingly  abstemious,  exemplary  in 
their  moral  deportment,  averse  from  profane  swearing, 
and  most  rigid  in  their  observance  of  the  Sabbath.  They 
held,  among  other  tenets,  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 


248  ^N  "^"^  CORRUPTIONS 

(though  they  denied  the  resurrection  of  the  body,)  the 
existence  of  angels,  and  a  state  of  future  rewards  and 
punishments.  Ti)ey  believed  every  thing  to  be  ordered 
by  an  eternal  fatality,  or  chain  of  causes.  Though  they 
are  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  they  are  sup* 
posed  to  be  referred  to  in  Col.  ii.  18.21.23:  and  the 
contemplative  Essenes,  are  supposed  to  have  been  in- 
tended by  those  who  in  Matt.  xix.  12,  are  said  to  have 
made  themselves  eunuchs,  for  the  kingdom  of  God's  sake. 

4.  The  Scribes  and  Lawyers,  who  are  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Gospels,  are  usually  classed  among 
Jewish  sects.  The  Scribes  had  the  charge  of  transcribing 
the  sacred  books,  of  publicly  interpretinof  the  more  diffi- 
cult passages,  and  of  deciding  in  cases  which  grew  out  of 
the  ceremonial  law.  They  possessed  great  influence,  as 
well  as  the  lawyers,  or  private  teachers  of  the  law. 

5.  The  Samaritans,  are  generally  considered  as  a 
Jewish  sect :  their  origin  and  tenets,  have  already  been 
noticed  in  p.  68. 

6.  The  Herodians,  were  a  political  faction,  the  parti- 
sans of  Herod,  misnamed  the  Great,  from  whom  they  de- 
rived their  name,  and  witii  wiiom  they  co-operated  in  all 
his  political  and  time-serving  schemes,  to  conciliate  the 
favour  of  the  Romans. 

7.  The  Galileans,  were  the  followers  of  Judas  the 
Gaulonite,  or  Galilaean,  whose  tenets  they  embraced,  and 
acted  upon.  They  held,  that  tribute  was  due  to  God 
alone,  and  consequently,  ouglit  not  to  be  paid  to  the  Ro- 
mans;  and  tiiat  religious  liberty,  and  the  authority  of  the 
divine  laws,  were  to  be  defended  by  force  of  arms.  In 
other  respects,  their  doctrines  appear  to  have  been  the 
same  as  those  of  the  Pharisees. 

The  Zealots,  so  often  mentioned  in  Jewish  history, 
appear  to  have  been  the  followers  of  this  Judas  :  and  it 
has  been  supposed,  that  the  just  men,  whom  tiie  Phari- 
sees and  Herodians  sent  to  entangle  Jesus  in  his  conver- 
sation, were  members  of  this  sect.  (Matt.  xxii.  15,  16. 
Mark  xii.  13,  14.     Luke  xx.  20.) 

8.  The  Sicarii,  noticed  in  Acts  xxi.  38,  were  assas- 
sins, who  derived  their  name  from  their  using  j)oniards, 
bent  like  the  Roman  siccB^  which  they   concealed  under 


OF  RELIGION  BV  THE  JEWS.  249 

their  garments,  and  privately  stabbed  the  objects  of  their 
rnalice. 

III.  The  Corruption  op  the  Jewish  People,  both 
in  religion  and  morals,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  sufficiently 
appears  from  the  censures  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  are  to 
be  found  in  the  four  Gospels.  The  evidence  of  the  sa- 
cred writers  is  confirmed  by  the  testimony  of  profane 
writers,  especially  Josephus,  the  Jewish  Historian,  from 
whom  we  learn,  that  the  corruption  and  profligacy  of  the 
chief  priests,  and  other  distinguished  leaders,  pervaded 
the  priests  ;  and  that  from  them,  the  moral  and  religious 
contamination  had  spread  to  the  lowest  classes  of  the  peo- 
ple, who  were  immersed  in  ignorance  and  vice,  and  che- 
rished the  most  supercilious  contempt,  and  bitter  hatred 
towards  the  Gentiles.  So  great  was  their  profligacy  in 
the  last  period  of  their  commonwealth,  that  Josephus  has 
recorded  it  as  his  opinion,  that  if  the  Romans  had  delay- 
ed any  longer  to  have  come  against  them,  the  city  (Je»- 
rusalem)  would  either  have  been  swallowed  up  by  an 
earthquake,  overwhelmed  by  a  deluge,  or  destroyed  by 
fire  from  heaven,  as  Sodom  was  :  for  that  generation  was 
far  more  enormously  wicked,  than  those  who  su^ered 
these  calamities.* 

♦  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  v,  c.  13.  16. 


250 


BOOK  TV— DOMESTIC    ANTIQUITIES    OF   THE   JEWS   AND   OTHER 
NATIONS,  INCIDENTALLY  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE   DWELLINGS   OP   THE   JEWS. 


The  earliest  dwellings  of  mankind,  after  they  began 
to  multiply,  are  supposed  to  have  been  caves  :  thus  Lot 
and  his  daughters  abode  in  a  cave  after  the  destruction 
of  Sodom :  and  both  ancient  and  modern  travellers  attest, 
that,  in  some  parts  of  the  East,  caves  have  been  employ- 
ed for  the  purposes  of  habitation.  In  succeeding  ages, 
they  abode  in  tents;  (Gen.  xviii.  4;)  and,  in  progress  of 
time,  houses  were  erected  ;  those  of  the  rich  were  formed 
of  stone,  or  bricks,  but  the  dwellings  of  the  poor,  were 
formed  of  wood,  or  more  frequently  of  mud,  (as  they  are 
to  this  day,  in  various  parts  of  the  East,)  a  material 
which  is  but  ill  calculated  to  resist  the  effects  of  the  im- 
petuous torrents,  that  descended  from  the  mountains  of 
Palestine.  Our  Lord  alludes  to  this  circumstance  at  the 
close  of  his  sermon  on  the  mount.  (Matt.  vii.  26,  27.)  In 
the  East  Indies  also,  nothing  is  more  common  than  for 
thieves  to  dig,  or  break  through  these  mud  walls,  while 
the  unsuspecting  inhabitants  are  overcome  by  sleep,  and 
to  plunder  them.  To  similar  depredations,  Jesus  Christ 
appears  to  allude,  when  he  exhorts  his  disciples,  not  to 
lay  up  their  treasure  where  thieves  break  through  and 
steal.  (Matt.  vi.  19,  20.)  In  the  holes  and  chinks  of 
these  walls,  serpents  sometimes  concealed  themselves. 
(Amos  V.  19.) 

The  following  diagram  will  convey  some  idea  of  the 
form  of  an  oriental  house. 


ON  THE  DWELLINGS  OP  THE  JEWS 


251 


As  the  style  of  Architecture  and  manners  of  the  East 
have  remained  unahered,  the  description  of  a  modern 
oriental  house  will  enable  us  to  form  a  tolerably  correct 
notion  of  the  structure  of  the  Jewish  houses.  In  the  East, 
the  streets  are  usually  narrow,  the  better  to  shade  them 
from  the  sun,  and  sometimes  they  have  a  range  of  shops 
on  each  side.  If,  then,  we  enter  a  house  from  the  street, 
A  A,  we  shall  pass  through  the  outer  porch,  B,  into  a 
square  court  open  to  the  weather.  This  court,  strewed 
with  mats  or  carpets,  is  the  usual  place  for  receiving  large 
companies  at  nuptials,  circumcisions,  and  on  other  occa- 
sions. The  banquet  of  Ahasuerus  was  given  in  a  court 
of  the  royal  palace;  (Esth.  i.  5;)  and  in  a  court  the  multi- 
tude was  assembled  to  hear  the  discourse  of  Jesus  Christ, 
mentioned  in  Luke  v.  19,  where  it  is  termed  to  ixctov,  (to 
meson,)  the  midst.  The  court  is,  for  the  most  part,  sur- 
rounded with  a  cloister,  over  which  is  a  gallery,  C  C  C, 
with  a  balustrade,  or  piece  of  lattice,  or  carved  work, 
going  round  it,  to  prevent  accidents :  and  from  this  clois- 
ter, we  are  led  into  apartments  of  the  same  length  as  the 
court.  D,  is  an  inner  porch,  at  the  entrance  into  the 
main  building.  The  gates  were  always  shut,  and  a  ser- 
vant acted  the  part  of  porter.  (John  xvii.  16,  17.  Acts 
xii.  13.)  The  roofs  were  flat,  (as  they  still  are,)  and  were 
formed   of  earth,  spread  evenly   along,  and   rolled   very 


252  ON  THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  JEWS, 

hard,  to  exclude  the  rain  ;  but  upon  this  surface,  grass  and 
weeds  grow  freely,  to  which  there  is  an  allusion  in  Psal. 
cxxix.  6.  and  Isa.  xxxvii.  27.  These  roofs  are  surround- 
ed by  a  wall,  breast  high,  to  prevent  persons  from  falling 
through :  such  a  defence,  or  battlement,  was  required  by 
Deut.  xxii.  8.  It  was  this  parapet  which  the  men  de- 
molished, in  order  to  let  the  paralytic  down  into  the  court, 
or  area  of  the  house.  (Mark  ii.  4.  Luke  v.  19.)  The 
back  part  of  the  house  is  allotted  to  the  women  :  in  Ara- 
bic it  is  called  the  Harem,  and  in  the  Old  Testament  the 
Palace.  Manahem,  king  of  Israel,  was  assassinated  in 
his  harem,  or  palace.  (2  Kings  xv.  25.)  The  harem 
of  Solomon  was  an  inner  and  separate  building.  (1  Kings 
vii.  8.     2  Chron  viii.  11.) 

The  furniture  of  the  oriental  dwellings,  at  least  in  the 
earliest  ages,  was  very  simple  :  that  of  the  poorer  classes, 
consisted  of  but  ^cw  articles,  and  those  such  as  were  ab- 
solutely necessary.  Instead  of  chairs,  they  sat  on  mats, 
or  skins  ;  and  the  same  articles  on  which  they  laid  a 
mattress,  served  them  instead  of  bedsteads,  while  their 
upper  garment  served  them  for  a  covering.  (Exod.  xxii. 
25,  26.  Deut.  xxiv.  12.)  This  circumstance  accounts 
for  our  Lord's  commanding  the  paralytic  to  take  up  his 
bed  and  go  unto  his  house.  (Matt.  ix.  6.)  Tiie  n)ore 
opulent  had  (as  those  in  the  East  still  have)  fine  carpets, 
couches,  or  divans,  and  sofas,  on  wliicli  tiiey  sit,  lay,  and 
slept.  (2  Kings  iv.  10.  2  Sam.  xvii.  28.)  In  later  times, 
their  couches  were  splendid,  and  the  frames  inlaid  with 
ivory,  (Amos  vi.  4,)  and  the  coverlids  rich  and  perfumed. 
(Prov.  vii.  16,  17.)  On  these  sofas,  in  the  latter  ajjes  of 
the  Jewish  state,  (for  before  the  time  of  Moses,  it  appears 
to  have  been  the  custom  to  sit  at  table.  Gen.  xliii.  33.) 
they  universally  reclined  when  taking  their  meals,  (Amos 
vi.  4.  Luke  vii.  36 — 38,)  resting  on  their  side,  with 
their  heads  towards  the  table,  so  that  their  feet  were  ac- 
cessil  le  t(»  one  ulio  came  behind  the  couch. 


ON  THE  DRESS  OF  THE  JEWS.  353 


CHAPTER  II. 

ON    THE    DRESS    OF    THE   JEWS. 

In  the  early  ages,  the  dress  of  mankind  was  very  sim- 
ple. Skins  of  animals,  furnished  the  first  materials,  which, 
as  men  increased  in  numbers  and  civilization,  were  ex- 
changed for  more  costly  articles,  made  of  wool  and  flax, 
of  which  they  manufactured  woollen  and  linen  garments; 
(Levit.  xiii.  47.  Prov.  xxxi.  13  ;)  afterwards,  fine  linen 
and  silk,  dyed  with  purple,  scarlet,  and  crimson,  became 
the  usual  apparel  of  the  more  opulent.  (2  Sam.  i.  24. 
Prov.  xxxi.  22.  Luke  xvi.  19.)  In  the  more  early  ages, 
garments  of  various  colours  were  in  great  esteem  :  such 
was  Joseph's  robe,  of  which  his  envious  brethren  stripped 
him,  when  they  resolved  to  sell  him.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  23.) 
The  daughters  of  kings,  wore  richly  embroidered  vests. 
(Psal.  xlv.  13,  14.)  It  appears  that  the  Jewish  garments, 
were  worn  pretty  long  ;  for  it  is  mentioned,  as  an  aggra- 
vation of  the  affront  done  to  David's  ambassadors,  by  the 
king  of  Ammon,,that  he  cut  off  their  garments  in  the  mid- 
dle^ even  to  their  buttocks.  (2  Sam.  x.  4.) 

The  most  simple  and  ancient  garment,  was  a  tunic  ;  it 
was  a  piece  of  cloth,  commonly  linen,  which  encircled  the 
whole  body,  was  bound  with  a  girdle,  and  descended  to 
the  knees.  Those  who  are  clothed  with  a  tunic  merely, 
are  sometimes  said  to  be  naked,  as  in  John  xxi.  7.  Aa 
under  garment,  or  shirt,  was  worn  under  the  tunic.  To 
prevent  the  latter  from  impeding  the  person,  girdles  were 
worn  round  the  loins,  whence  various  figurative  expres- 
sions are  derived  in  the  Scriptures,  to  denote  preparation, 
active  employment,  and  despatch.  Sometimes,  also,  these 
girdles  served  as  a  pouch  to  carry  money,  and  other  ne- 
cessary things.  (Matt.  x.  9.  Mark  vi.  8.)  Over  the 
tunic  was  worn  an  upper  garment,  or  mantle  :  it  was  a 
piece  of  cloth  nearly  square,  several  feet  in  length  and 
breadth,  which  was  wrapped  round  the  body,  or  tied  over 
the  shoulders.  The  feet  were  protected  from  injury,  by 
sandals  bound  round  the  feet ;  to  loose  and  bind  tiiem  on, 
was  the  office  of  the  lowest  menial  servants.  The  beard 
was  considered  a  great  ornament :  to  pluck,  or  mar  it  ia 
any  way,  was  considered  a  erreat  disgrace.  (2  Sam.  x.  4.) 
^22 


254  MAURIAGE  CUSTOMS  OF  THE  JEWS. 

A  heavy  head  of  hair,  was  considered  a  great  ornament, 
(2  Sam.  xiv.  26,)  as  baldness  was  accounted  a  source  of 
contempt.  (2  Kings  ii.  23.)  The  hair  was  combed,  set 
in  order,  and  anointed,  especially  on  festive  occasions. 
To  this  practice,  there  are  very  numerous  allusions  in  the 
Scriptures.  A  sort  of  mitre,  probably  similar  to  the  mo- 
dern turbans,  was  worn  to  defend  the  head.  A  prodi- 
gious number  of  magnificent  habits  was,  anciently,  re- 
garded as  a  necessary  part  of  the  treasures  of  the  rich : 
and  the  practice  of  amassing  them  is  alluded  to  in  Job 
xxvii.  6,  and  Matt.  vi.  19.  It  appears  from  Psal.  xlv.  8, 
that  the  wardrobes  of  the  East,  were  plenteously  perfu- 
med with  aromatics. 

The  dress  of  the  women  differed  from  that  of  the  men, 
chiefly  in  the  quality  of  the  materials,  and  in  the  women 
wearing  a  veil.  Rings,  necklaces,  pendants,  and  other 
ornaments,  still  worn  by  the  fair  sex,  formed  part  of  the 
apparel  of  the  Jewish  ladies :  and  like  the  oriental  wo- 
men of  our  time,  they  tinged  their  eyelids  with  the  pow- 
der of  lead  ore.  Thus  Jezebel  did,  who,  in  2  Kings 
ix.  30,  is  said  to  have  painted  her  face:  and  Job's  young- 
est daughter  (xli.  14,)  had  a  name  (Keren-happuch,  that 
is,  the  horn  of  pouk,  or  lead  ore,)  in  reference  to  this 
practice. 

Mirrors  formed  an  important  accompaninient  to  the 
female  wardrobe  :  anciently,  they  were  made  of  molten 
brass  polished,  and  were  carried  in  the  hand. 


CHAPTER  III. 


MARBIAGE   CUSTOMS    OP   THE   JEWS, 


Marriage,  was  regarded  by  the  Jews,  as  a  sacred  ob- 
ligation, and  celibacy  was  accounted  a  great  ref)r()ach. 
Polygamy  was  tolerated,  but  not  authoritatively  allowed. 
The  concubines,  of  whom  wo  rt'ad,  were  secondary,  or 
inferior  wives,  whose  children  did  not  inherit  the  father's 
property,  except  on  failure  of  issue  by  the  primary,  or 
more  honourable  wives.  Thus,  Sarah  was  Abraham's  [>ri- 
mary  wife,  by  whom  he  had  Isaac,  who  was  the  heir  of  his 
wealth.      But  besides  her,  he  had  ts^o  concubines,  namely, 


MARRIAGE  CUSTOMS  OF  THE  JEWS.  255 

Haffar  and  Keturah ;  by  these  he  had  other  children, 
whom  he  distinguished  Irom  Isaac  :  for  it  is  said,  he  gave 
them  gifts,  and  sent  them  aivay  while  he  yet  lived, 
(Gen.  xxy.  5,  6.) 

No  formalities  appear  to  have  been  used  by  the  Jews 
— at  least  none  were  enjoined  to  them  by  Moses — in  join- 
ing man  and  wife  together.  Mutual  consent,  followed  by 
consummation,  was  deemed  sufficient.  The  manner  in 
which  a  daughter  was  demanded  in  marriage,  is  described 
in  the  case  of  Shechem,  who  asked  Dinah,  the  daughter 
of  Jacob,  in  marriage;  (Gen.  xxxiv.  6 — 12;)  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  contract,  together  with  the  mode  of  solemni- 
zing the  marriage,  is  described  in  Gen.  xxiv.  50,  51.  57. 
67.  There  was  indeed,  a  previous  espousal,  or  betroth- 
ing, which  was  a  solemn  promise  of  marriage,  made  by 
the  man  and  woman,  each  to  the  other,  at  such  a  distance 
of  time  as  they  agreed  upon.  This  was  sometimes  done 
by  writing,  sometimes  by  the  delivery  of  a  piece  of  silver 
to  the  bride,  in  presence  of  witnesses,  as  a  pledge  of  their 
mutual  engagements.  After  such  espousal  was  made, 
(which  was  generally  when  the  parties  were  young,)  the 
woman  continued  with  her  parents  several  months,  if  not 
some  years,  (at  least  till  she  was  arrived  at  the  age  of 
twelve,)  before  she  was  brought  home,  and  her  marriage 
consummated.  That  it  was  the  practice  to  betroth  the 
bride  sometime  before  the  consummation  of  the  marriage, 
is  evident  from  Deut.  xx.  7.  Thus  we  find,  that  Samson's 
wife  remained  with  her  parents  a  considerable  time  after 
the  espousal.  (Judg.  xiv.  8.)  If,  during  the  time  between 
the  espousal  and  the  marriage,  the  bride  was  guilty  of  any 
criminal  correspondence  with  another  person,  contrary  to 
the  fidelity  she  owed  to  her  bridegroom,  she  was  treated 
as  an  adulteress.  Among  the  Jews,  and  generally  through- 
out the  East,  marriage  was  considered  as  a  sort  of  pur- 
chase, which  the  man  made  of  the  woman  he  desired  to 
marry  ;  and  therefore,  in  contracting  marriages,  as  the 
wife  brought  a  portion  to  the  husband,  so  the  husband  was 
obliged  to  give  her  or  her  parents  money,  or  presents,  in 
lieu  of  this  portion.  See  instances  in  Gen.  xxxiv.  12, 
xxix.  18.  1  Sam  xviii.  25.  The  nuptial  solemnity,  was 
celebrated  with  great  festivity  and  splendour.     The  para- 


256  BIRTH,  EDUCATION,  ETC.  OF  CHILDREN. 

ble  of  the  ten  virgins  in  Matt.  xxv.  gives  a  good  idea  of  the 
customs  practised  on  these  occasions. 

Marriage  was  dissolved  among  the  Jews  by  divorce  as 
well  as  by  death.  Our  Saviour  tells  us  that  Moses  suf- 
fered this  only  because  of  the  hardness  of  their  heart,  but 
from  the  beginning  it  was  not  so,  (Matt.  xix.  8,)  mean- 
ing that  they  were  accustomed  to  this  abuse  ;  and  to  pre- 
vent greater  evils,  such  as  murders,  adulteries,  &c.,  he 
permitted  it  ;  and  he  expressly  limited  the  permission  of 
divorce  to  the  single  case  of  adultery.  (Matt.  v.  31,  32.) 
Nor  was  this  limitation  unnecessary  :  for  at  that  time  it 
was  common  for  the  Jews,  to  dissolve  this  sacred  union, 
upon  verv  slight  and  trivial  pretensions. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

BIRTH,  EDUCATION,   ETC.    OF  CHILDREN. 

In  the  East,  child-birth  is,  to  this  day,  an  event  of  but 
little  difficulty,  and  mothers  were  originally  the  only  as- 
sistants of  their  daughters,  any  further  aid  being  deemed 
unnecessary,  though  midwives  were  sometimes  employ- 
ed. (Exod.  i.  19.  Gen.  xxxv.  17,  xxxviii.  28.)  The  birth 
of  a  son  was  celebrated  as  a  festival,  which  was  solemni- 
sed in  succeeding  years  with  renewed  demonstrations  of 
^oy,  especially  those  of  sovereign  princes.  (Gen.  xl.  20. 
Job  i.  4.  Matt.  xiv.  0.)  The  birth  of  a  son,  or  daughter, 
rendered  the  mother  ceremonially  unclean  for  a  certain 
period. 

On  the  eighth  day  after  his  birth,  th<'  son  was  circum- 
cised, and  received  a  name.  The  first-horn  son,  enjoy- 
ed peculiar  privileges.  He  received  a  double  portion  of 
the  estate  :  he  was  the  high  priest  of  the  whole  family; 
and  he  enjoyed  an  autiiority  over  those  who  were  younijer, 
similar  to  that  possessed  by  a  father.  The  sons  remained 
till  the  fifth  year  in  the  care  of  the  women  ;  after  which, 
the  father  took  charge  of  them,  and  instructed  them,  or 
caused  them  to  be  instructed,  in  the  arts  and  duties  of  life, 
and  in  the  law  of  Moses.  (Deut.  vi.  20 — 25,  xi.  19.) 
The  daughters  rarely  went  out,  unless  sent  for  a  specific 
purpose.    Where  there  were  no  children,  adoption — or  the 


ON  THE  CONDITION  OF  SLAVES,  ETC.  257 

taking  of  a  stranger  into  a  family,  in  order  to  make  him 
a  part  of  it,  acknowledging  him  as  a  son  and  heir  to  the 
estate— was  practised.  The  elder  Hebrews,  indeed,  do 
not  appear  to  have  had  recourse  to  adoption,  because 
Moses  is  silent  concerning  it  in  his  laws.  It  was,  however, 
common  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ ;  and  St.  Paul  has 
many  beautiful  allusions  to  it  in  his  epistles. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ON   THB   CONDITION  OF  SLAVES,    AND   THE   CUSTOMS   RELATING   TO   THEM,  MBIf* 
TIONED,   OR  ALLUDED   TO    IN   THB   NEW   TESTAMENT. 

Slavery  Is  of  very  remote  antiquity.  It  existed  before 
the  flood  :  (Gen.  ix.  25 :)  and  when  Moses  gave  his  laws 
to  the  Jews,  finding  it  already  established,  though  he 
could  not  abolish  it,  yet  he  enacted  various  salutary  laws 
and  regulations. 

Slaves  were  acquired  in  various  ways,  viz. :  1.  By 
Captivity;  (Gen.  xiv.  14.     Deut.  xx.   14,  xxi.  10,  11  ;; 

2.  By  Deht^  when  persons,  being  poor,  were  sold  for  pay- 
ment of  their  debts  ;  (2  Kings  iv.   1.  Matt,  xviii.   25  ;) 

3.  By  committing  a  Theft,  without  the  power  of  making 
restitution ;  (Exod.  xxii.  2,  3.  Neb.  v.  4,  5  ;)  and  4. 
By  Birth,  when  persons  were  born  of  married  slaves. 
These  are  termed  horn  in  the  house,  (Gen.  xiv.  14,  xv.  3 
xvii.  23,  xxi.  10,)  home-horn,  (Jer.  ii.  14,)  and  the  sons^ 
or  children  o{  handmaids.    (Psal.  Ixxxvi.  16,  cxvi.  16.) 

Slaves  received  both  food  and  clothing,  for  the  n)ost 
part  of  the  meanest  quality,  but  whatever  property  they 
acquired,  belonged  to  their  lords:  hence,  they  are  said  to 
be  worth  double  the  value  of  a  hired  servant.  (Deut.  xv. 
18.)  They  formed  marriages  at  the  will  of  their  master, 
but  their  children  were  slaves,  who,  though  they  could 
not  call  him  a  father,  (Gal.  iv.  6.  Rom.  viii.  15,)  yet  they 
were  attached  and  faithful  to  him  as  to  a  father;  on  which 
account,  the  patriarchs  trusted  them  with  arms.  (Gen. 
xiv.  14.  xxxii.  6,  xxxiii.  1.)  Their  duty  was  to  execute 
their  lord's  commands,  and  they  were,  for  the  most  part, 
employed  in  tending  cattle,  or  in  rural  affairs:  and 
though  the  lot  of  some  of  them  was  sufficienilv  hard. 
22»  ^ 


258  ON  THE  CONDITION  OF  SLAVES,  ETC. 

yet  under  a  mild  and  humane  master,  it  was  tolerable. 
(Job  xiii.  13.)  When  the  eastern  people  have  no  male 
issue,  they  frequently  (as  in  Barbary)  marry  theirdaugrhters 
to  their  slaves  :  so  Sheshan  did,  who  gave  his  daughter 
to  his  Egyptian  servant  [slave]  Jarha.  (See  1  Chron.  ii. 
34,  35.)  Various  regulations  were  made  by  Moses  to 
ensure  the  humane  treatment  of  slaves;  among  which 
the  three  following,  are  particularly  worthy  of  notice  ;  1. 
Hebrew  slaves  were  to  continue  in  slavery  only  till  the 
j^ear  of  jubilee,  when  they  might  return  to  liberty,  and 
their  masters  could  not  detain  them  against  their  wills. 
If  they  were  desirous  of  continuing  with  their  master, 
they  were  to  be  brought  to  the  judges ;  before  whom  they 
were  to  make  a  declaration,  that,  for  this  time,  they  dis- 
claimed the  privilege  of  the  law:  and  they  had  their  ears 
bored  through  with  an  awl,  against  the  door-posts  of  their 
master's  house,  after  which,  they  had  no  longer  any  power 
of  recovering  their  liberty  until  the  next  year  of  jubi- 
lee, after  forty-nine  years.  (Exod.  xxi.  5,  6.)  2.  If  a 
Hebrew  by  birth,  was  sold  to  a  stranger,  or  alien,  dwell- 
ing in  the  vicinity  of  the  land  of  Israel,  his  relations  were 
to  redeem  him,  and  such  slave  was  to  make  good  the  pur- 
chase money,  if  he  were  able,  paying  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  y^J^rs  that  remained,  until  the  year  of  jubilee. 
(Lev.  XXV.  47 — 55.)  3.  Lastly,  if  a  slave  of  another  na- 
tion fled  to  the  Hebrews,  he  was  to  be  received  hospi- 
tably, and  on  no  account  to  be  given  up  to  his  master. 
(DeiJt.  xxiii.  15,  16.) 

Although  Moses  inculcated  the  duty  of  humane  treat- 
ment towards  slaves,  and  enforced  his  statutes  by  vari- 
ous strong  sanctions,  yet  it  appears  from  Jer.  xxxiv.  8 — 
22,  that  their  condition  was  sometimes  very  wretched  ; 
and,  in  later  times,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  it 
was,  in  general,  truly  miserable.  Being  for  the  most 
part  captives  taken  in  war,  they  were  bought  and  sold 
like  beasts  of  burden  ;  and  were  at  the  mercy  of  their 
owners,  who  had  an  absolute  right  over  their  lives,  and 
who  branded  them,  in  order  to  mark  their  property.  To 
the  practice  of  buying,  purchasing,  and  brancling  slaves, 
St.  Paul  has  several  fine  allusions.  See  particularly,  1 
Cor.  Yi.  20,  vii.  23,  ;ind  Gal.  vi.  17.  The  confinement 
of  slaves  in  mines,  appears  to  b  •  referred  to  in  Malt.  viii. 


DOMESTIC  CUSTOMS,  ETC.  OF  THE  JEWS.  ^59 

12,  and  xxii.  13,  and  crucifixion  was  a  punishment  al- 
most  exclusively  reserved  for  them  :  whence  St.  Paul 
takes  occasion  to  illustrate  the  love  of  Christ  for  fallen 
man,  who,  for  the  joy  that  was  set  before  him,  endured 
the  cross,  despising  the  shame  and  ignominy  of  such  a 
death. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

DOMESTIC  CUSTOMS  AND  USAGES  OF  THE  JEWS. 

Various  are  the  modes  of  address  and  politeness,  which 
custom  has  established  in  different  nations.  The  ordinary 
formulae  of  salutation  were — The  Lord  be  with  thee! — 
The  Lord  bless  thee  ! — and  Blessed  be  thou  of  the  Lord  ! 
but  the  most  common  salutation  was,  Peace  (that  is,  may 
all  manner  of  prosperity)  be  with  thee !  (Ruth  ii.  4. 
Judg.  xix.  20.  1  Sam.  xxv.  6.  2  Sam.  xx.  9.  Psal.  cxxix. 
8.)  In  the  later  period  of  the  Jewish  polity,  much  time 
appears  to  have  been  spent  in  the  rigid  observance  of  these 
ceremonious  forms  :  which  are  alluded  to  in  Matt.  x.  12. 
See  also  2  Kings  iv.  29. 

Respect  was  shown  to  persons  on  meeting,  by  the  salu- 
tation of  Peace  be  with  you  !  and  laying  the  right  hand 
upon  the  bosom  :  but  if  the  person  addressed  was  of  the 
highest  rank,  they  bowed  to  the  earth.  Thus,  Jacob  bowed 
to  the  ground  seceu  t'lmesuntilhe  came  near  to  his  brother 
Esau.  (Gen.  xxxiii.  3.)  Sometimes  they  kissed  the  hem 
of  the  person's  garment,  and  even  the  dust  on  which  he 
had  to  tread.  (Zech.  viii.  23.  Luke  viii.  44.  Acts  x.  26. 
Psal.  Ixxii.  9.)  Near  relations  and  intimate  acquain- 
tances kissed  each  other's  hands,  head,  neck,  beard,  (which 
on  such  occasions,  only,  could  be  touched  without  affront,) 
or  shoulders.  (Gen.  xxxiii.  4,  xlv.  14.  2  Sam.  xx.  9.  Luke 
XV.  20.  Acts  XX.  17.) 

Whenever  the  common  people  approached  their  prince, 
or  any  person  of  superior  rank,  it  was  customary  for  them 
to  prostrate  themselves  before  them.  The  allusions  to 
this  practice,  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  are  very 
numerous ;  as  well  as  to  the  making  of  presents  to  supe- 
riors. (See  particularly  Matt,  ii  11.) 


26Q  DOMESTIC  CUSTOMS 

When  any  person  visited  another,  he  stood  at  the  gate 
and  knocked,  or  called  aloud,  until  the  person  on  whom 
he  called  admitted  him.  (2  Kings  v.  9 — 12.  Acts  x.  17,  xii. 
13,  16.)  Visiters  were  always  received  and  dismissed 
with  great  respect.  On  their  arrival,  water  was  brought 
to  wash  their  feet  and  hands,  (Gen.  xviii.  4,  xix.  2.)  after 
which  the  guests  were  anointed  with  oil.  David  alludes 
to  this  in  Psal.  xxiii.  5,  and  Solomon,  in  Prov.  xxvii.  9. 
The  same  practice  obtained  in  our  Saviour's  time.  ^Luke 
vii.  44,  45.) 

The  Jews  rose  early,  about  the  dawn  of  day,  when  they 
breakfasted.  They  dined  about  eleven  in  the  forenoon, 
and  supped  at  five  in  the  afternoon.  Their  food  consist- 
ed principally  of  bread,  milk,  rice,  vegetables,  honey,  and 
sometimes  of  locusts,  except  at  the  appointed  festivals,  or 
when  they  offered  their  feast-offerings :  at  these  times 
they  ate  animal  food,  of  which  they  appear  to  have  been 
very  fond.  (Numb.  xi.  4.)  But  they  were  prohibited  from 
eating  the  flesh  of  certain  animals,  as  well  as  with  people 
of  another  religion.  The  pottage  which  Jacob  had  pre- 
pared, and  which  was  so  tempting  to  Esau  as  to  n)ake 
him  sell  his  birthright,  shows  the  simplicity  of  the  ordi- 
warydietof  the  patriarchs.  Isaac,  in  his  old  age,  longed 
for  savoury  meat,  which  was  accordingly  prepared  for  him ; 
(Gen.  xxvii.  4.  17 ;)  but  this  was  an  unusual  thing. 
The  feast  with  which  Abraham  entertained  the  three 
angels  was  a  calf,  new  cakes  baked  on  the  hearth,  together 
with  butter  (ghee)  and  milk.  (Gen.  xviii.  6,  7.)  We 
may  form  a  correct  idea  of  their  ordinary  food  by  the  ar- 
ticles which  were  presented  to  David  on  various  occasions 
by  Abigail,  (ISam.  xxv.  IS,)  by  Ziba,  (2  Sam.  xvi.  1,) 
and  by  Barzillai.  (2  Sam.  xvii.  28,  29.)  Their  ordinary 
beverage  was  water,  which  was  drawn  from  the  public 
wells  and  fountains,  (John  iv.  6,  7,)  and  which  was  to  be 
refused  to  no  one.  (John  vi.  9.  Matt.  xxv.  35.)  Wine  of 
different  sorts,  which  was  preserved  in  skins,  was  also 
drunk  by  the  Jews,  after  their  settlement  in  the  land  of 
Canaan.  Red  wine  seems  to  have  been  most  esteemed. 
(Prov.  xxiii.  31.  Rev.  xiv.  20,  xix.  3.  JR)  The  women 
did  not  appear  at  table  in  enterlainn)enis  with  the 
men.  This  would  have  been  then,  as  it  is  at  this  day 
throughout   the   East,  an  indecency.     Thus,  Vashti  the 


AND  USAGES  OF  THE  JEWS.  261 

Queen  made  a  feast  for  the  women  in  the  royal  hovrse^ 
which  belonged  to  Ahasuerus,  (Esther  i.  9,)  while  the 
Persian  monarch  was  feasting  his  nobles. 

The  Hebrews  anciently  sat  at  table  as  we  do  now ;  af- 
terwards, they  imitated  the  Persians  and  ChaldaBans,  who 
reclined  on  table-beds,  or  couches,  while  eating;  some 
traces  of  these  couches  are,  nevertheless,  observed  in 
Amos,  (vi.  4,  7,)  Ezekiel,  (xxiii.  47,)  and  Tobit;  (ii.  4;) 
but  this  use  was  not  general.  We  see  expressions  in  the 
sacred  authors  of  those  times,  which  prove  that  they  also 
sat  at  table.  At  Ahasuerus's  banquet,  (Esth.  i.  6,)  the 
company  lay  on  beds,  and  also  at  that  which  Esther  gave 
the  king  and  Haman.  (Esth.  vii.  8.)  Our  Saviour,  in 
like  manner,  reclined  at  table,  when  Mary  Magdalen 
anointed  his  feet  with  perfume,  (Matt.  xxvi.  7,)  and  when 
John,  at  the  last  supper,  rested  his  head  on  his  bosom. 
(John  xiii.  25.) 

When  persons  journeyed,  they  provided  themselves  with 
every  necessary;  women  and  rich  men  frequently  travel- 
led on  asses  or  camels,  which  carried  not  only  their  mer- 
chandise, but  also  their  household  goods  and  chattels. 
The  Jews  often  travelled  in  caravans,  or  companies,  (as 
the  inhabitants  of  the  East  do  to  this  day,)  especially 
when  they  went  up  to  Jerusalem  at  the  three  great  annual 
festivals.  The  company,  among  which  Joseph  and  Mary 
supposed  Jesus  to  have  been,  on  their  return  from  the 
passover,  when  he  was  twelve  years  old,  (Luke  ii.  42 — 
44,)  was  one  of  these  caravans. 

In  the  East,  anciently,  as  well  as  in  modern  times, 
there  were  no  inns,  in  which  the  traveller  could  meet 
with  refreshment.  Hence  hospitality  was  deemed  a  sa- 
cred duty  incumbent  upon  every  one.  The  sacred  wri- 
tings exhibit  several  instances  of  hospitality  exercised  by 
the  patriarchs.  (Gen.  xviii.  2,  3,  &c.,  xix.  1 — 3.)  St. 
Paul  and  St.  Peter  frequently  enforce  the  sacred  duty  of 
hospitality. 


262  ON  THE  OCCUPATIONS,  ARTS,  ETC. 

CHAPTER  VI 

OK   THB   OCCirPATIONS,    ARTS,    AND    SCIBNCBS   OP  THB   HBBRBWS. 

Sbction  T. — Agriculture  and  Horticulture  of  the  Jews. 

Agriculture,  including  sheep  husbandry,  was  the  prin- 
cipal occupation  of  the  patriarchs  and  their  families  :  and, 
in  succeedir)g  ages,  the  greatest  men,  as  Moses,  David,  and 
others,  did  not  disdain  to  follow  husbandry,  however  mean 
that  occupation  may  be  accounted  in  modern  times.  All 
the  Mosaic  statutes,  indeed,  were  admirably  calculated  to 
encourage  agriculture,  as  the  chief  basis  of  national  pros- 
peiity,  and  also  to  preserve  the  Israelites  detached  from 
the  surrounding  idolatrous  nations. 

Although  the  Scriptures  do  not  furnish  us  with  any 
details  respecting  the  state  of  agriculture  in  Judaea,  yet 
we  may  collect  from  various  passages  many  interesting 
hints  that  will  enable  us  to  form  a  tolerably  correct  idea 
of  the  high  state  of  its  cultivation.  With  the  use  of  ma- 
nures, the  Jews  were  unquestionably  acquainted.  Salt, 
either  by  itself,  or  mixed  in  the  dunghill,  in  order  to  pro- 
mote putrefaction,  is  specially  mentioned  as  one  article  of 
manure  :  (Matt.  v.  13.  Luke  xiv.  34,  35  :)  and  as  the  river 
Jordan  annually  overflowed  its  banks,  the  mud  deposited 
when  its  waters  subsided  must  have  served  as  a  valuable 
irrigation  and  top-dressing,  particularly  to  the  pasture 
lands.  It  is  probable  that,  after  the  waters  had  thus  sub- 
sided, seed  was  sown  on  the  wet  soft  ground  ;  in  allusion 
to  which,  Solomon  says,  Cast  thy  bread  (corn  or  seed) 
upon  the  waters :  for  thou  shalf  find  it  again,  with  in- 
crease, after  many  days.  (Ecclcs.  xi.  1.)  And  Isaiah, 
promising  a  time  of  peace  and  plenty,  says — Blessed  art 
ye  that  sow  beside  all  waters,  and  send  forth  thither  the 
feet  of  the  ox  and  the  ass.   (Isa.  xxxii.  20.) 

The  method  of  nianaging  the  ground  and  preparing  it 
for  the  seed,  was  much  the  same  with  the  practice  of 
the  present  times  ;  for  Jeremiah  speaks  of  ploughirig  up 
the  fallow  ground,  (Jer.  iv.  3,)  and  I>aiah  of  harrowing, 
or  breaking  up  the  clods  ;  (Isa.  xxviii.  24  ;)  but  Moses,  for 
wise  reasons  doubtless,  gave  a  positive  injunction,  that 
they  should  not  sow  their  fields  with  mingled  seed. 


OF  THE  HEBREWS.  2G3 

The  kinds  of  grain   sowed  by  the  Jews  were  fitches, 
cummin,  wheat,  barley,  and  rice:  (Isa.  xxviii.  25:)  there 
were  three  months  between  their  sowing  and  their  first 
reaping,  and  four  months  to  their  full  harvest :  their  bar- 
ley-harvest was  at  the  passover,  and  their  wheat-harvest  at 
the  pentecost.     The  reapers  made  use  of  sickles,  and  ac- 
cording to  the  present  custom  they  filled  their  hands  with 
the  corn,  and  those  that  bound  up  the  sheaves,  their  bosom  : 
there  was  a  person  set  over  the  reapers,  (Ruth  ii.  5,)  to  see 
that  they  did  their  work,  that  they  had  provision  proper  for 
them,  and  to  pay  them  their  wages.    Women  were  employ- 
ed in  reaping  as  well  as  the  men.     The  poor  were  allowed 
the  liberty  of  gleaning,  though  the  land-owners  were  not 
bound  to  admit  them  immediately  into  the  field  as  soon  as  the 
reapers  had  cut  down  the  corn  and  bound  it  up  in  sheaves, 
but  after  it  was  carried  off:  they  might  also  choose  those 
among  the  poor,  whom  they  thought  most  worthy  or  most 
necessitous.     The  conclusion  of  the  harvest,  or  carrying 
home  the  last  load,  was  with  the  Jews  a  season  of  joyous 
festivity,  and  was  celebrated  with  a  harvest-feast.     (Psal. 
cxxvi.  Isa.   ix.  3,  xvi.  9,  10.(     The  corn  being  cut  and 
carried  in   wagons   or  carts,  (Numb.  vii.  3 — 8.  Isa.  v.  8, 
xxviii.  27,  28.  Amos  ii.  13.)  was  either  laid  up  in  stacks 
(Exod  xxii.  6,)or  barns;  (Matt.  vi.  26,  xiii.  30.  Luke  xiii. 
18.  24;)  and,  when  thrashed  out,  was  stored  in  graneries 
or  garners.  (Psal.   xliv.    13.   Matt.   iii.  12.)     David  had 
storehouses  in  the  fields,  in  the  cities,  and  in  the  villages, 
andinthe  castle-s.   (1  Chron.  xxvii.  25.) 

After  the  grain  was  carried  into  the  barn,  the  next  pro- 
cess was  to  thrash,  or  beat  the  corn  out  of  the  ear  ;  this 
was  performed  in  various  ways.  Sometimes  it  was  done 
by  horses  (Isa.  xxviii.  28,)  and  by  oxen,  that  trod  out  the 
corn,  with  their  hoofs  shod  with  b  ass.  (Mic.  iv.  12,  13.) 
This  mode  of  thrashing  is  expressly  referred  to  by  Hosea, 
(x.  11,)  and  in  the  prohibition  of  Moses  against  7K7/22Zm^ 
the  ox  that  treadeth  out  the  corn,  (Deul.  xxv.  4,)  and  it 
obtains  in  India  to  this  day.  Other  modes  of  thrashing 
are  mentioned  in  Isa.  xxviii.  28,  Judg.  vi.  11,  and  1 
Chron.  xxi.  20.  When  the  corn  was  ihus  thrashed,  it 
was  dried  either  in  the  sun,  or  by  a  fire,  or  in  a  furnace. 
This  is  called  parched  ror/z,  (Levit.  xxiii.  14,  1  Sam.  xvii. 
17  and  xxv.  IS,)  and  was  sometimes  used  in  this  manner 


264  ON  THE  OCCUPATIONS,  ARTS,  ETC. 

for  food,  without  any  further  preparation  ;  but  generally, 
the  parching  or  drying  it  was  in  order  to  make  it  more  fit  for 
grinding.  This  process  was  performed  either  in  mortars 
or  mills,  both  of  which  are  mentioned  in  Numb.  xi.  8: 
but  mills  were  chiefly  employed  for  this  purpose  ;  and 
they  were  deemed  of  such  use  and  necessity,  that  the  Is- 
raelites were  strictly  forbidden  to  take  the  nether  oi  ^pper 
mill-stone  in  pledge;  the  reason  of  which  is  added,  be- 
cause this  was  taking  a  man's  life  in  pledge ;  (Deut.  xxiv. 
6  ;)  intimating  that  while  the  mill  ceases  to  grind,  people 
are  in  danger  of  being  starved. 

The  grinding  at  mills  was  accounted  an  inferior  sort  of 
work,  and  therefore  prisoners  and  captives  were  generally 
put  to  it.  To  this  work  Samson  was  set,  while  he  was  in 
the  prison-house.  (Judg.  xvi.  21.)  There  hand-mills 
were  usually  kept,  by  which  prisoners  earned  their  living. 
The  expression  in  Isa.  xlvii.  2 — Take  the  7nillstones  and 
grind  meal — is  part  of  the  description  of  a  slave  ;  but,  for 
the  most  part,  the  women-servants  were  employed  in  this 
drudgery,  as  is  evident  from  Matt.  xxiv.  1.  This  was  in 
use  not  only  among  the  Jews,  but  also  among  the  Egyp- 
tians and  Chaldeans,  as  appears  from  Exod.  xi.  5,  and  Lam. 
V.  13.  The  various  processes  of  agriculture  have  furnished 
the  sacred  writers  with  numerous  beautiful  allusions.  Pa- 
lestine abounded  with  generous  wine ;  and  in  some  districts 
the  grapes  were  of  superior  quality.  The  canton  allotted 
to  Judah  was  celebrated  on  this  account.  In  this  district 
were  the  vales  of  Sorek  and  of  Eshcol ;  and  the  cluster, 
which  the  Hebrew  spies  carried  from  this  last  pljice,  was 
so  large  as  to  be  carried  on  a  staff  between  two  of  them ; 
(Numb.  xiii.  23;)  Lebanon  (Hos.  xiv.  7.)  and  Helbon 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  18,)  were  likewise  celebrated  for  their  ex- 
quisite wines.  Grapes  were  also  dried  into  raisins.  (1 
Sam.  xxv.    18.     2  Sam.  xvi.  1.) 

The  ancient  Hebrews  were  very  fond  of  gardens,  which 
are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  sacred  writings;  and  de- 
rive their  appellations  from  the  prevalence  of  certain  trees, 
as  the  garden  of  nuts  and  of  pomegranates.  (Sol.  Song 
vi.  11,  iv.  13.)  Besides  these  and  other  fruits,  which 
"Were  common  in  Judaea,  (as  dales,  figs,  <fec.)  they  had 
repuliir  plantations  of  olives,  the  oil  expressed  from  which 
furnished  a  profitable  article  of  commerce  with  the  Tyrians: 
(Ezek.  xxxii.    17.  compared  with  I   Kings  v.  11  :)  and 


OF  THE  HEBREWS.  265 

among-  the  judgments  with  which  God  threatened  the 
Israelites  for  their  sins,  it  was  denounced,  that  though  they 
had  olive  trees  through  all  their  coasts  yet  they  should 
not  anoint  themselves  with  the  oil,  for  the  olive  should  cast 
her  fruit.  (Deut.  xxviii.  40.) 


Section  II.  —On  the  Arts  and  Sciences  of  the  Jews. 

Of  the  Arts  practised  by  the  Hebrews,  in  the  earlier 
periods  of  their  history,  we  have  but  few  notices  in  the 
sacred  writings.  From  the  mention  of  utensils,  ornaments, 
and  other  things,  which  imply  some  knowledge  of  the 
arts,  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  it  is  evident  that  considerable 
progress  must  have  been  made  in  the  time  of  Noah :  and 
it  is  scarcely  credible  that  the  Hebrews  could  have  resided 
four  hundred  years  in  Egypt,  without  acquiring  some 
knowledge  of  those  arts,  which  their  masters  are  allowed 
to  have  possessed.  Soon  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  a 
place  was  expressly  allotted  to  artificers :  for,  in  the 
genealogy  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  delivered  in  1  Chron.  iv. 
14,  we  read  of  a  place  called  the  Valley  of  Craftsmen, 
and  (ver.  21.  23,)  of  a  family  of  workmen  of  fine  linen, 
and  another  of  potters  :  and  when  Jerusalem  was  taken 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  enemy  carried  away  all  the 
craftsmen  and  smiths.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  14.)  But,  as  a 
proof  that  their  skill  in  manufactures  and  trade  therein 
could  not  be  very  extensive,  we  find  that  the  prophet 
Ezekiel,  (chap,  xxvii.)  in  describing  the  affluence  of  the 
goods  which  came  to  Tyre,  mentions  nothing  as  being 
brought  thither  from  Judaea,  except  wheat,  oil,  grapes,  and 
balm,  which  v^^ere  all  the  natural  products  of  their  ground. 
From  Prov.  xxxi.  13,  it  appears  that  the  mistresses  of 
families  usually  made  the  clothing  for  their  husbands, 
their  children,  and  themselves. 

Their  knowledge  in  the  Liberal  Arts  does  not  seem 
to  have  greatly  exceeded  their  skill  in  mechanics.  They 
knew  but  little  of  astronomy  and  the  motions  of  the  hea- 
venly bodies.  Solomon,  indeed,  was  a  noble  pattern  of 
knowledge  and  wisdom.  His  skill  in  natural  philosophy 
is  sufficiently  indicated,  when  we  are  told,  that  he  spake 
of  trees  from  the  cedar  tree  that  is  in  Lebanon,  even  to  the 
hyssop  that  springeth  out  of  the  wall ;  he  spake  also  of 
23 


266  ON  THE  OCCUPATIONS,  ARTS,  &c. 

beasts,  and  of  fowls,  and  of  creeping  things,  and  of  fishes, 
(1  Kings  iv.  33.)  His  books  of  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes 
abundantly  inform  us  what  skill  he  had  in  ethics,  econo- 
mics, and  politics  :  but  as  the  wonderful  talents,  with  which 
he  was  endued,  were  the  inamediate  gift  of  God,  and  in 
compliance  with  his  special  request  for  divine  wisdom,  (2 
Chron.  i.  7 — 13,)  so  singular  an  instance  is  no  rule,  by 
which  we  ought  to  judge  of  the  genius  of  the  whole  na- 
tion. 

Nor  did  Building  or  Architecture  attain  much  perfec- 
tion prior  to  the  reign  of  the  accomplished  Solomon.  We 
read,  indeed,  before  the  Israelites  came  into  the  land  of 
Canaan,  that  Bezaleel  and  Aholiab  (who  were  employed^ 
in  the  construction  of  the  tabernacle  (excelled  in  all  man- 
ner  of  workmanship,  (Exod.  xxxv.  30 — 35,)  but  we  are 
there  told,  that  they  had  their  skill  by  inspiration  from 
God,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  they  had  any  successors  : 
for  in  ihedaysof  Solomon,  when  the  Israelites  were  at  rest 
from  all  their  enemies,  and  at  full  freedom  to  follow  out 
improvements  of  every  kind,  yet  they  had  no  professed  ar- 
tists that  could  undertake  the  work  of  the  temple  ;  so  that 
Solomon  was  obliged  to  send  toHiram,kingof  Tyre,  for  a 
skilful  artist;  (2  Chron.  vii.  13,  14;)  by  whose  direction 
the  model  of  the  temple,  and  all  the  curious  furniture  of 
it,  was  both  designed  and  finished.  But,  after  the  Jews 
were  under  the  influence  or  power  of  the  Romans,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  a  better  taste  prevailed  among  them. 
Herod, at  least,  must  have  employed  some  architects  of  dis- 
tinguished abilities  to  repair  and  beautify  the  temple,  and 
render  it  the  superb  structure,  which  the  description  of 
Josephus  shows  that  it  must  have  been. 

We  read  nothing  of  the  art  of  Writing,  in  Scripture, 
before  the  copy  of  the  law  was  given  by  God  to  IVloses, 
which  was  wriften  (that  is  engraven,)  on  two  tables  of 
stone  /jy  the  finger  of  God,  (Exod.  xxxi.  18,)  and  this  is 
called  ihe  writing  of  God.  (Exod.  xxxii.  16.)  It  is  there- 
fore probable  that  God  himself  first  taught  letters  to  I\loses, 
who  communicated  the  knowledge  of  them  to  the  Lrael- 
ites,  and  ihey  to  the  other  eastern  nations.  Engraving 
or  sculpture  seems,  therefore,  to  be  the  mostancient  way 
of  writing,  of  which  we  have  another  very  early  instance 
in  Exod.  xxxix.  30,  where  we  are  told,  that  "  Holiness  to 


OF  THE  HEBREWS.  267 

the  Lord"  was  written  on  a  golden  plate,  and  worn  on  the 
high  priest's  head.  And  we  find  that  the  names  of  the 
twelve  tribes  were  commanded  to  be  written  on  twelve  rods. 
(Numb.  xvii.  2.)  Afterwards  they  made  use  of  broad 
rushes  or  flags  for  writing  on,  which  grew  in  great  abun- 
dance in  Egypt,  and  are  noticed  by  the  prophet  Isaiah, 
when  foretelling  the  confusion  of  that  country.  (Isa.  xix. 
6,  7.) 

The  other  eastern  nations  made  use  chiefly  of  parch- 
ment, being  the  thin  skins  of  animals  carefully  dressed. 
The  best  was  made  at  Pergamos,  whence  it  was  called 
Ckarta  Pergamena,  It  is  probable  that  the  Jews  learn- 
ed the  use  of  it  from  them,  and  that  this  is  what  is  meant 
by  a  ro//,  (Ezra  vi.  2,)  and  a  roll  of  a  book,  (Jer.  xxxvi. 
2,)  and  a  scroll  rolled  together:  (Isa.  xxxiv.  4:)  for  it  could 
not  be  thin  and  weak  paper,  but  parchment,  which  is  of 
some  consistency,  that  was  capable  of  being  thus  rolled 
up.  St.  Paul  is  the  only  person  who  makes  express 
mention  of  parchment.  (2  Tim.  iv.  13.)  In  Job  xix. 
24,  and  in  Jer.  xvii.  1,  there  is  mention  made  of  pens  of 
iron,  with  which  they  probably  made  the  letters,  whea 
they  engraved  on  stone  or  other  hard  substances  :  but  for 
softer  materials  they,  in  all  probability,  made  use  of  quills 
or  reeds  ;  for  we  are  told  of  some  in  the  tribe  of  Zebulun 
who  handled  the  pen  of  the  writer.  (Judg.  v.  14.)  Da- 
vid alludes  to  the  pen  of  a  ready  writer,  (Psal.  xlv.  1,)  and 
Baruch,  wrote  the  words  of  Jeremiah  with  ink  in  a  book. 
(Jer.  xxxvi.  18.) 

Of  the  poetry  and  music  of  the  Hebrews  we  have  more 
ample  information. 

The  genius  of  their  Poetry  having  been  already  dis- 
cussed in  pages  108 — 111,  it  is  sufficient  here  to  remark, 
that  the  effusions  of  the  inspired  Hebrew  muse  infinitely 
surpass  in  grandeur,  sublimity,  beauty,  and  pathos,  all  the 
most  celebrated  productions  of  Greece  and  Rome,  Not 
to  repeat  unnecessarily  the  observations  already  offered 
on  this  topic,  we  may  here  briefly  remark,  that  the  eucha- 
ristic  song  of  Moses,  composed  on  the  deliverance  of  the 
Israelites  and  their  miraculous  passage  of  the  Red  Sea, 
(Exod.  XV.  1 — 19,)  is  an  admirable  hymn,  full  of  strong 
and  lively  images.  The  song  of  Deborah  and  Barak 
(Judg.  v.)  and  that  of  Hannah,  the  mother  of  Samuel,  (1 


268  ON  THE  OCCUPATIONS,  ARTS,  ETC. 

Sam.  ii.  1,)  have  many  excellent  flights,  and  some  noble 
and  sublime  raptures.  David's  lamentation  on  the  death 
of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (2  Sam.  i.  19 — 27,)  is  an  incompa- 
rable elegy.  The  gratulatory  hynm  (Isa.  xii.)  and  Heze- 
kiah's  song  of  praise,  (Isa.  xxviii.)  are  worthy  of  every 
one's  attention.  The  prayer  of  Habakkuk  (iii.)  contains 
a  sublime  description  of  the  divine  majesty.  Besides 
these  single  hymns  we  liave  the  books  of  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  Canticles,  and  Lamentations  ;  all  of  which 
are  composed  by  different  poets,  according  to  the  usage 
of  those  times.  The  Psalms  are  a  great  storehouse  of 
heavenly  devotion,  full  of  afl'ecting  and  sublime  thoughts, 
and  with  a  variety  of  expressions  admirably  calculated  to 
excite  a  thankful  remembrance  of  God's  mercies,  and  for 
moving  the  passions  of  joy  and  grief,  indignation  and  ha- 
tred. They  consist  mostly  of  pious  and  atlectionate  pray- 
ers, holy  meditations,  and  exalted  strains  of  praise  ^ind 
thanksgiving,  intermingled  with  sublime  descriptions,  and 
most  beautiful  allusions. 

Their  sacred  songs  were  accompanied  with  Music,  the 
nature  of  which  it  is  now  as  difficult  to  determine,  as  it  is 
to  ascertain  with  precision  the  various  musical  instruments 
which  were  in  use  among  them,  without  entering  into  de- 
tails and  conjectures  which  are  inconsistent  with  the  plan 
of  this  volume.  Referring  the  reader,  therefore,  to  the 
author's  larger  work,  in  which  he  has  attempted  to  collect 
the  most  probable  accounts,  he  will  only  remark  in  this 
place,  that,  if  any  conclusions  may  be  d;awn  concerning 
the  Hebrew  music  from  its  efTccts,  the  sacred  history  has 
recorded  several  examples  of  the  power  and  charms  of 
niusic,  to  sweeten  the  temper,  to  compose  and  aliay  the 
passions  of  the  mind,  to  revive  the  drooping  spirits,  and  to 
dissipate  melancholy.  It  had  this  eflect  on  Saul,  when 
David  played  to  him  on  his  harp.  (I  Sam.  xvi.  1(1.  23.) 
And  when  Elisha  was  desired  by  Jehoshaphat  to  tell  him 
what  his  success  against  the  king  of  Moab  would  he,  the 
prophet  required  a  minstrel  to  be  brought  unto  him  :  and 
when  he  played,  it  is  said,  that  the  hand  of  the  Lord  came 
upon  him;  (2  Kinirs  iii.  15  ;)  not  thai  the  gifi  of  prophecy 
was  the  natural  eflect  of  music,  but  the  meaning  is,  that 
music  disposed  the  organs,  the  humours,  and,  in  short,  the 


OF  THE  HEBREWS.  269 

whole   mind  and  spirit  of  the  prophet,  to  receive  these 
supernatural  impressions. 

But  music  was  not  exclusively  confined  to  religious 
worship.  From  Gen.  xxxi.  27,  Isa.  v.  2,  and  xxiv.  8,  it 
appears  that  music  was  employed  on  all  solemn  occasions 
of  entertaining  their  friends,  and  also  at  other  entertain- 
ments. That  music  and  dancing  were  used  among  the 
Jews  at  their  feasts,  in  latter  ages,  may  be  inferred  from 
the  parable  of  the  prodigal  son.  (Luke  xv.  25.)  Further, 
dancing  was  also  an  ordinary  concomitant  of  music  among 
the  Jews  ;  sometimes  it  was  used  on  a  religious  account. 
Thus,  Miriam  with  her  women  glorified  God  (after  the 
deliverance  from  the  Egyptians)  in  dances  as  well  as 
songs,  (Exod.  xv.  20,)  and  David  danced  after  the  ark, 
(2  Sam.  ii.  16.)  It  was  a  thing  common  at  the  Jewish 
feasts,  (Judg.  xxi.  19,  21,)  and  m  public  triumphs,  (Judg, 
xi.  34,)  and  at  all  seasons  of  mirth  and  rejoicing.  (Psal. 
XXX.  11.  Jer.  xxxi.  4,  13.  Luke  xv.  25.)  The  idolatrous 
Jews  made  it  a  part  of  the  worship  which  they  paid  to  the 
golden  calf.  (Exod.  xxxii.  19.)  The  Amalekites  danced 
after  their  victory  at  Ziklag,  (1  Sam.  xxx.  16,)  and  Job 
makes  it  part  of  the  character  of  the  prosperous  wicked, 
(that  is,  of  those  who,  placing  all  their  happiness  in  the 
enjoyments  of  sense,  forget  God  and  religion,)  that  their 
children  dance.  (Job.  xxi.  IL)  The  dancing  of  the  pro- 
fligate Herodias's  daughter  pleased  Herod  so  highly,  that 
he  promised  to  give  her  whatever  she  asked,  and  accord- 
ingly, at  her  desire,  and  in  compliment  to  her,  he  com- 
manded John  the  Baptist  to  be  beheaded  in  prison.  (Matt.* 
xiv.  6,  7,  8.) 

The  diseases  to  which  the  human  frame  is  subject  would 
naturally  lead  man  to  try  to  alleviate  or  to  remove  them. 
Hence  sprang  the  art  of  Medicine.  Anciently,  it  is  said 
to  have  been  the  practice  to  expose  the  sick  on  the  sides 
of  frequented  ways,  in  order  that  those  persons  who  passed 
along,  inquiring  into  the  nature  of  their  complaint,  might 
communicate  the  knowledge  of  such  remedies  as  had  been 
beneficial  to  themselves  under  similar  circumstances.  The 
healing  art  was  unquestionably  cultivated  ;  but  there  is 
reason  to  think  that  the  knowledge  of  the  Jews  was  very 
limited,  and  that  it  extended  little  beyond  the  curing  of  a 
green  wound,  or  the  binding  up  of  fractures.     In  the  case 

23* 


270  O^  "^HE  OCCUPATIONS,  ARTS,  ETC. 

of  internal  disorders,  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  cus- 
tomary to  call  in  the  aid  of  a  physician.  These  maladies 
were  regarded  as  the  immediate  effect  of  the  divine  anger, 
and  inflicted  by  evil  spirits,  as  the  executioners  of  his  ven- 
geance ;  and  this  was  the  reason  why  religious  people 
generally  had  recourse  to  God  only,  or  to  his  prophets, 
(see  2  Kings  xx.  7,)  while  the  irreligious  resorted  to  false 
gods,  and  charms  or  enchantments.  (2  Kings  i.  2.  Jer. 
viii.  17.) 

Various  diseases  are  mentioned  in  the  sacred  writings, 
as  cancers,  consumption,  dropsy,  epilepsy,  fevers,  gan- 
grenes, hemorrhoids,  or  piles,  leprosy,  (concerning  which 
see  p.  245,  supra,)  lunacy,  palsy,  ^c.  The  disease  of 
Saul  appears  to  have  been  a  true  melancholy  madness  ; 
that  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  a  hypochondriacal  madness  ;  that 
of  Job,  an  incurable  elephantiasis,  in  which  the  skin  be- 
comes uneven  and  wrinkled  with  many  furrows,  like  that 
of  an  elephant,  whence  it  takes  its  name. 

Lastly,  in  the  New  Testament  we  meet  with  nume- 
rous cases  of  what  are  termed  Demoniacal  Possession. 
Some  eminent  writers  have  supposed  that  the  demoniacs, 
or  persons  who  were  possessed  by  evil  spirits,  were  only 
lunatics.  But  it  is  evident  that  the  persons,  who  in  the 
New  Testament  are  said  to  be  possessed  with  devils,  (more 
correctly  with  demons.)  cannot  mean  only  persons  afflict- 
ed with  some  strange  disease:  for  they  are  evidently 
here,  as  in  other  places, — particularly  in  Luke  iv.  33 — 
36,  41 — distinguished  from  the  diseased.  Further  Christ's 
speaking  on  various  occasions  to  these  evil  spirits,  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  persons  possessed  by  them, — his  command- 
ing them,  and  asking  them  questions,  and  receiving  an- 
swers from  them,  or  not  suffering  them  to  speak, — and 
several  circumstances  relating  to  the  terrible  preternatural 
effects  which  they  had  upon  the  possessed,  and  to  the 
manner  of  Christ's  evoking  them, — particularly  their  re- 
questing and  obtaining  permission  to  enter  the  herd  of 
swine,  (Matt.  viii.  31,  32,)  and  precipitating  them  into  the 
sea  ; — all  these  circumstances  can  never  be  accounted  for 
by  any  distemper  whatever.  Nor  is  it  any  reasonable 
objection„that  we  do  not  read  of  such  fre(pjeni  posses- 
sions before  or  since  the  appearance  of  our  Redeemer  upon 
earth.     It  seems,  indeed,  to  have  been  ordered  by  a  spe- 


OF  THE  HEBREWS.  271 

cial  providence,  that  they  should  have  been  permitted  to 
have  then  been  more  common  ;  in  order  that  He,  who 
came  to  destroy  the  works  of  the  Devil,  might  the  more 
remarkably  and  visibly  triumph  over  him  ;  and  that  the 
machinations  and  devices  of  Satan  might  be  more  openly 
defeated,  at  a  time  when  their  power  was  at  its  highest, 
both  in  the  souls  and  bodies  of  men  ;  and  also,  that  plain 
facts  might  be  a  sensible  confutation  of  the  Sadducean 
error,  which  denied  the  existence  of  angels  or  spirits, 
(Acts  xxiii.  8,)  and  prevailed  among  the  principal  men 
both  for  rank  and  learning  in  those  days.  The  cases  of 
the  demoniacs  expelled  by  the  apostles  were  cases  of  real 
possessions  :  and  it  is  a  well  known  fact,  that,  in  the 
second  century  of  the  Christian  sera,  the  apologists  for  the 
persecuted  believers  in  the  faiih  of  Christ,  appealed  to 
their  ejection  of  evil  spirits  as  a  proof  of  the  divine  origin 
of  their  religion.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  demoniacs 
were  not  merely  insane  or  epileptic  patients,  but  per- 
sons really  and  truly  vexed  and  convulsed  by  unclean 
demons. 


CHAPTER  Vni. 

ALLUSIONS  TO  THE  THEATRES,  TO  THEATRICAL  PERFORMANCES,  AND  TO  THE  GRE- 
CIAN GAMES,   IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

I.  Theatrical  performances  were  in  great  request 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  this  will  account  for 
so  many  theatres  being  erected  in  Judaea,  soon  after  that 
country  became  subject  to  the  Roman  power.  The 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  being  addressed  to  Gentiles,  abound 
with  elegant  allusions  drawn  from  the  theatre.  Thus,  in 
1  Cor.  vii.  29 — 31,  he  refers  to  the  personification  of  the 
woes  of  others,  which  was  common  on  the  stage,  while 
the  heart  continued  unaffected  with  them,  and  also  to  the 
¥apid  shifting  of  the  scenes.  In  1  Cor.  iv.  9,  he  alludes 
to  the  barbarous  practice  then  common  in  the  Roman 
amphitheatre,  w^here  the  bestiarii,  who  in  the  morning 
combated  with  wild  beasts,  had  armour  with  which  to  de- 
fend themselves,  and  to  slay  their  antagonists  :  but  the 
last,  those  who  were  exposed  at  noon    were  naked  and 


272       JEWISH  MODE  OF  TREATING  THE  DEAD. 

unarmed,  and  set  forth  (as  our  version  renders  it)  to  cer- 
tain and  cruel  death. 

II.  But  the  most  splendid  and  renowned  solemnities 
were  the  Olympic  Games,  solemnized  every  fifth  year,  in 
the  presence  of  a  cloud  of  witnesses  or  spectators,  assem- 
bled from  almost  every  part  of  the  then  known  world. 
The  exercises  at  these  games  consisted  principally  in 
running,  wrestling,  and  the  chariot  race.  The  candidates 
were  to  be  freemen  and  Greeks,  of  unimpeachable  cha- 
racter ;  and  ihey  were  subjected  to  a  long  and  severe 
regimen.  On  the  day  appointed,  the  names  of  the  can- 
didates were  called  over  by  the  heralds  :  and  on  a  given 
signal,  those  who  engaged  in  the  foot-race,  rushed  for- 
ward towards  the  goal,  in  the  presence  of  the  assembled 
multitude,  and  especially  of  the  Hellanodics,  persons 
venerable  for  their  years  and  character,  who  were  appoint- 
ed judges  of  the  games,  and  whose  province  it  was  to 
distribute  chaplets  composed  of  the  fading  sprigs  of  the 
wild  olive,  and  palm  branches,  which  were  conspicuously 
exposed  to  the  view  of  the  candidates.  The  knowledge 
of  these  circumstances  throws  much  light  and  beauty  on 
those  animating  exhortations  of  St.  Paul,  in  Heb.  xii.  1. 
3.  12,  13.  Phil.  iii.  12—14.  2  Tim.  iv.  7,  8,  and  1  Cor. 
ix.  24,  25.  In  the  two  following  verses,  he  alludes  to 
the  practice  of  those  who  engaged  in  boxing,  as  well  as 
to  the  previous  discipline  to  which  all  candidates  were 
subjected. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

JEWISH  MOPB  OF  TKEATING  THE  DEAD. — FUNERAL  KITES. 

By  the  law  of  Moses  a  dead  body  conveyed  a  IcL'al  pol- 
lution to  every  thing  that  touched  it — even  to  the  very 
house  and  furniture — wiiirh  continued  seven  days.  (\umb. 
xix.  14,  15,  16.)  And  this  was  the  reason  why  il  c  priests, 
on  account  of  their  daily  niinistrations  in  lioly  tninis,  were 
forbidden  to  assist  at  any  funerals  but  those  of  their 
nearest  relatives;  nay,  the  very  dead  bones,  tliouL'h  they 
had  lain  ever  so  long  in  tlie  grave,  if  digged  u|),  conveyed 
a  pollution  to   any   who   touciied  them  ;  and  this  was  the 


FUNERAL  RITES.  273 

reason  why  Josiah  caused  the  bones  of  the  false  priests  to 
be  burnt  upon  the  ahar  at  Bethel,  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  5,)  to 
the  intent  that  these  altars,  being  thus  polluted,  might  be 
had  in  the  greater  detestation. 

When  the  principle  of  life  was  extinguishea,  tne  first 
funeral  office  among  the  Jews  was  to  close  the  eyes  of  the 
deceased.  This  was  done  by  the  nearest  of  kin.  Thus, 
it  was  promised  to  Jacob,  when  he  took  his  journey  into 
Egypt,  that  Joseph  should />Mi  his  hands  upon  his  eyes. 
(Gen.  xlvi.  4.)  The  next  office  was  the  ablution  of  the 
corpse.  Thus,  when  Tabitha  died,  it  is  said,  that  they 
washed  her  body^  and  laid  it  in  an  upper  chamber,  (Acts 
ix.  37.)  This  rite  was  common  both  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  In  Egypt,  it  is  still  the  custom  to  wash  the 
dead  body  several  times.  Loud  lamentations  attended 
the  decease  of  persons,  especially  those  who  were  greatly 
beloved,  not  only  as  soon  as  they  had  expired,  (Gen.  1.  1. 
Matt.  ix.  23.  Mark  v.  38,)  but  especially  at  the  time  of 
interment.  (Gen.  1.  10,  11.)  In  later  times,  the  Jews 
hired  persons,  whose  profession  it  was  to  superintend  and 
conduct  these  funeral  lamentations.  (Jer.  ix.  17,  xvi. 
6,  7,  xlviii.  36,  37.  Ezek.  xxiv.  16—18.  Amos  v. 
16  :)  and  in  the  time  of  Christ,  minstrels  and  mourners 
were  hired  for  this  purpose.  (Matt.  ix.  23.  Mark  v. 
38. 

After  the  corpse  had  been  washed  it  was  embalmed  in 
costly  spices  and  aromatic  drugs,  after  which  it  was  closely 
swathed  in  linen  rollers,  probably  resembling  those  of  the 
Egyptian  mummies  now  to  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 
So  Nicodemus  made  preparation  for  the  embalming  of 
Jesus  Christ  ;  (John  xix.  39,  40  ;)  and  Lazarus  appears  to 
have  been  swathed  in  a  similar  way,  when  raised  to  life 
again  by  the  omnipotent  voice  of  Jesus  Christ.  (John 
xi.  44.)  At  the  funerals  of  some  Jewish  monarchs,  great 
piles  of  aromatics  were  set  on  fire,  in  which  were  consumed 
their  bowels,  armour,  and  other  things.  (2  Chron.  xvi. 
14.     Jer.  xxxiv.  5.) 

The  Jews  showed  great  regard  for  the  burial  of  their 
dead.  To  be  deprived  of  interment,  was  deemed  one  of 
the  greatest  dishonours  and  calamities  that  could  befall 
any  person.  (Psal.  Ixxix.  2.  Jer.  xxii.  19,  xxxvi.  30.) 
Their  burial-places  were  in  gardens,  fields,  and  the  sides 


274       JEWISH  MODE  OF  TREATS*  THE  DEAD. 

of  mountains  :  and  over  the  rich  and  great  were  erected 
splendid  monuments.  To  this  practice  Jesus  Christ  al- 
ludes in  Matt,  xxiii.  7.  From  Isa.  Ixv.  4,  and  Mark  v. 
5,  it  would  seem  that  some  tombs  had  cupolas  over  them 
which  afforded  shelter,  similar  to  those  which  modern 
travellers  in  the  East  have  seen  and  described.  Family 
sepulchres  were  in  gardens.     (John  xix.  41.) 

A  funeral  feast  commonly  succeeded  the  Jewish  burials. 
Thus,  after  Abner's  funeral  was  solemnized,  the  people 
came  to  David  to  eat  meat  with  him,  though  they  could 
not  persuade  him  to  do  so.  (2  Sam.  iii.  35.)  He  was 
the  chief  mourner,  and  probably  had  invited  them  to  this 
banquet.  Of  this  Jeremiah  speaks,  (xvi.  7,)  where  he 
calls  it  the  cwp  of  consolation,  which  they  drank  for  their 
father  or  their  mother  ;  and  accordingly  the  place  where 
this  funeral  entertainment  was  made  is  called  in  the  next 
verse  the  house  of  feasting.  Hosea  calls  it  the  bread  of 
vwurners.     (Hos.  ix.  4.) 

The  usual  tokens  of  mourning,  by  which  the  Jews  ex- 
pressed their  grief  and  concern  for  the  death  of  their 
friends  and  relations,  were,  the  rending  of  their  garments, 
putting  on  sack-cloth,  sprinkling  dust  upon  their  heads, 
wearing  mourning  apparel,  and  covering  the  face  and 
head.     (Gen.  xxxvii.  34.    2  Sam.  xiv.  2,  xix.  4.) 

Anciently,  there  was  a  peculiar  space  of  time  allotted 
for  lamenting  the  deceased,  which  they  called  the  days  of 
^7no7trning.  (Gen.  xxvii.  41,  and  1.  4.)  Thus,  the  Egyp- 
tians, who  had  a  great  regard  for  the  patriarch  Jacob,  la- 
mented his  death  threescore  and  ten  days.  (Gen.  1.  3.) 
The  Israelites  wept  for  Moses  in  the  plains  of  Moab  thirty 
days.  (Deut.  xxxiv.  8.)  Afterwards  among  the  Jews 
the  funeral  mourning  was  generally  confined  to  seven 
days.  Thus,  besides  the  mourning  for  Jacob  in  Egypt, 
Joseph  and  his  company  set  apari  .seven  days  to  mourn  for 
his  father,  when  they  approached  the  Jordan  with  his 
corpse.  (Gen.  1.  10.)  No  particular  period  has  been 
recorded,  during  which  widows  mourned  for  their  hus- 
bands. Balhsheba  is  said,  generally,  to  have  monrned 
for  Uriah  ;  (2  Sam.  xi.  26  ;)  but  her  mourning  could 
neither  be  long  nor  very  sincere.  The  Jews  paid  a  greater 
or  less  degree  of  honour  to  their  kings  after  their  death, 
according  to  the  merits  of  their  actions  when  they  were 


FUNERAL  RITES,  275 

alive.  On  the  death  of  any  prince,  who  had  in  any  way 
distinguished  himself,  they  used  to  make  lamentations  or 
mournful  songs  for  them.  From  an  expression  in  2 
Chron.  xxxv.  25.  Behold^  they  are  written  in  the  La- 
mentations,  we  may  infer  that  they  had  certain  collections 
of  this  kind  of  composition.  The  author  of  the  book  of 
Samuel  has  preserved  those  which  David  composed  on 
occasion  of  the  death  of  Saul  and  Jonathan,  of  Abner  and 
Absalom;  but  we  have  no  remains  of  the  mournful  elegy 
composed  by  Jeremiah  upon  the  immature  death  of  Josiab« 
the  exemplary  king  of  Judah. 


276 


PART  IV. 

ON  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


BOOK  I.— ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ON  THE  PENTATEUCH. 


The  Pentateuch,  by  which  title  the  first  five  books  of 
Moses  are  distinguished,  is  a  word  of  Greek  original, 
IIevTaTev;(Oi  ( Peiitateuch OS )  {vom  TnvTc('pente)  five,  and  revxoi 
(teuchos)  a  book  or  volume,  which  literally  signifies  the 
five  instruments  or  books  ;  by  the  Jews  it  is  termed 
Chomelz,  a  word  synonymous  with  Pentateuch,  and  also, 
more  generally,  the  Law,  or  the  Law  of  Moses,  because 
it  contains  the  ecclesiastical  and  political  ordinances  issued 
by  God  to  the  Israelites.  The  pentateuch  forms,  to  this 
day,  but  one  roll  or  volume  in  the  Jewish  manuscripts, 
being  divided  only  into  larger  and  smaller  sections.  This 
collective  designation  of  the  books  of  Genesis,  Exodus, 
Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy,  is  of  very  consi- 
derable antiquity,  though  we  have  no  certain  information 
when  it  was  first  introduced.  As,  however,  the  names 
of  these  books  are  evidently  derived  from  the  Greek,  and 
as  the  five  books  of  Moses  are  expressly  mentioned  by 
Josephus,  who  wrote  only  a  few  years  after  our  Saviour's 
ascension,  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  ap- 
pellation of  Pentateuch  was  prefixed  to  the  Septuagint 
version  by  the  Alexandrian  translators. 


Rection  I.— On  the  Book  of  Genofils. 


The   first   book   of   the    Pentateuch,    which    is  called 
Genesis,  (TENEEIE,)  derives  its  appellation  from  the  title 


ON  THE  PENTATETICn.  277 

it  bears  in  the  Greek  Septuagint  Version,  BIBAOE  TENE- 
J:Ei2S,  (Biblos  Geiieseos ;)  which  signifies  the  Book  of  the 
Oeneration  or  Production,  because  it  commences  with  the 
history    of  the   generation  or  production  of  all  things. 

Different  opinions  have  been  entertained  concerning 
the  time  when  Moses  wrote  it;  (for  it  is  indisputably  his 
production  ;)  but  the  most  probable  conjecture  is  that 
which  places  it  after  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt,  and  the  promulgation  of  the  law.  It  comprises 
the  history  of  about  2369  years  according  to  the  vulgar 
computation  of  time,  or  of  3619  years  according  to  the 
larger  computation  of  Dr.  Hales ;  and  may  be  divided 
into  four  parts,  viz.  : 

Part  I.  The  Origin  of  the  World,  (ch.  i.,  ii.) 

Part  II.  The  History  of  the  former  World,  (ch.  iii. — 
vii.) 

Part  III.  The  General  History  of  Mankind  after  the 
Deluge,  (ch.  viii. — xi.) 

Part  IV.  The  particular  History  of  the  Patriarchs, 
(ch.  xii. — 1.) 


Section  II,— On  the  Book  of  Exodus. 

The  title  of  this  book  is  derived  from  the  Septuagint 
version,  and  is  significant  of  the  principal  transaction 
which  it  records,  namely,  the  ESOAOS  (Exodos,)  Exodus, 
or  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt.  It  comprises 
a  history  of  the  events  that  took  place  during  the  period 
of  145  years,  from  the  year  of  the  world  2369  to  2514 
inclusive,  from  the  death  of  Joseph  to  the  erection  of  the 
tabernacle.  Though  the  time  when  it  was  written  by 
Moses  cannot  be  precisely  determined,  yet,  since  it  is  a 
history  of  matters  of  fact,  it  must  have  been  written  after 
the  giving  of  the  law  and  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle. 
This  book  shows  the  accomplishment  of  the  divine  pro- 
mises made  to  Abraham,  of  the  increase  of  his  posterity, 
and  their  departure  from  Egypt  after  suffering  great  af- 
fliction.    It  contains 

I.  An  Account  of  the  oppression  of  the  Israelites,  and 
the  transactions  previously  to  their  departure  out  of  Egypt. 
(ch.  i. — xi.) 

24 


278  ^^  THE  PENTATEUCH. 

II.  The  Narrative  of  the  Exodus,  or  Departure  of  the 
Israelites,   (ch.  xii.,  xiii.) 

III.  Transactions  subsequent  to  their  Exodus,  (ch.  xiv. 
— xviii.) 

IV.  The  Promulgation  of  the  Law  on  Mount  Sinai, 
(ch.  xix. — xl.) 

In  ch.  xxxii.— xxxiv.  are  related  the  idolatry  of  the  Israelites,  the  break- 
ing cK  the  two  tables  of  the  law,  the  divine  chastisement  of  the  Hebrews, 
and  the  renewal  of  the  tables  of  the  covenant. 


Section  III.— On  the  Book  of  Leviticus. 

Leviticus,  by  the  Septuagint  styled  AEYITIKON,  (Le- 
vitikon,)  derives  its  name  from  the  circumstance  of  its 
containing  the  Laws  concerning  the  religion  of  the  Israel- 
ites. It  is  cited  as  the  production  of  Moses  in  several 
books  of  Scripture  ;  and  is  of  great  use  in  explaining 
many  passages  of  the  New  Testament,  especially  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  which  would  otherwise  be  inex- 
plicable. The  enactments  it  contains  may  be  referred  to 
the  four  following  heads,  viz.  : 

I.  The  Laws  concerning  Sacrifices,  in  which  the  diffe- 
rent kinds  of  sacrifices  are  enumerated,  together  with  their 
concomitant  rites,  (ch.  i. — vii.) 

II.  The  Institution  of  the  Priesthood,  in  which  the  con- 
secration of  Aaron  and  his  sons  to  the  sacred  office  is  re- 
lated, together  with  the  punishment  of  Nadab  and  Abihu. 
(ch.  viii. — x.) 

III.  The  Laws  concerning  Purifications  both  of  the 
people  and  the  priests,     (ch.  xi. — xxii.) 

IV.  The  Laws  concerning  the  sacred  Festivals,  Vows, 
Things  devoted,  and  Tithes. 

Chap.  xxvl.  contains  various  prophetic  promises  and  threntcnings, 
•wliich  iinve  nij^nally  been  fulfilled  among  the  Jews.  (Compare  v.  22, 
■with  Nuiiil).  xxi.  G.  2  Kings  ii.  24,  and  xvii.  2.5.  with  Ezek.  v.  17.)  The 
preseivaiion  of  the  Jews  to  this  day  as  a  distinct  people  is  a  living  com- 
ment on  v.  44. 


Sbction  IV. — On  the  Book  of  Numbers. 

This  fourth    book    of  Moses   was   entitled    APIOMOI, 
(Arithmoi,)  and  by  the  Latin  translators  it  was  termed 


ON  THE  PENTATEUCH.  279 

Numeri,  Numbers,  whence  our  English  title  is  derived ; 
because  it  contains  an  account  of  the  numbering  of  the 
children  of  Israel,  (related  in  chapters  i. — iii.  and  xxvi.) 
It  appears  from  xxxvi.  13,  to  have  been  written  by  Moses, 
in  the  plains  of  Moab.  Besides  the  numeration  and  mar- 
shalling of  the  Israelites  for  iheir  journey,  several  laws  in 
addition  to  those  delivered  in  Exodus  and  Leviticus,  and 
likewise  several  remarkable  events,  are  recorded  in  this 
book.  It  contains  a  history  of  the  Israelites,  from  the 
beginning  of  the  second  month  of  the  second  year  after 
their  departure  from  Egypt  to  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  month  of  the  fortieth  year  of  their  journeyings  : 
that  is,  a  period  of  thirty-eight  years  and  nine  or  ten 
months.  (Compare  Numb.  i.  1,  and  xxxvi.  13,  with 
Deut.  i.  3.)  Most  of  the  transactions  here  recorded  took 
place  in  the  second  and  thirty-eighth  years  :  "  the  dates 
of  the  facts  related  in  the  middle  of  the  book  cannot  be 
precisely  ascertained."  This  book  raiay  be  divided  into 
four  parts;  viz.  : 

Part  I.  The  Census  of  the  Israelites,  and  the  mar- 
shalling of  them  into  a  regular  camp,  "  each  tribe  by 
itself  under  its  own  captain  or  chief,  distinguished  by  his 
own  peculiar  standard,  and  occupying  an  assigned  place 
with  reference  to  the  tabernacle."  (Numb,  i.,  ii.)  The 
sacred  census  of  the  Levites,  the  designation  of  them  to 
the  sacred  office,  and  the  appointment  of  them  to  various 
services  in  the  tabernacle,  are  related  in  Numb.  iii. 
and  iv. 

Part  II.  The  Institution  of  various  Legal  Ceremonies, 
(ch.  V. — X.) 

Part  III.  The  History  of  their  Journey  from  Mount 
Sinai  to  the  Land  of  Moab,  which  may  be  described  and 
distinguished  by  their  eight  remarkable  murmurings  in 
the  way ;  every  one  of  which  was  visited  with  severe 
chastisement,  (ch.  xi. — xxi.) 

Part  IV.  A  History  of  the  Transactions  which  took 
place  in  the  plains  of  Moab.  (ch.  xxii. — xxxvi.) 


280  ^^  '"^^  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 

Sbction  v.— On  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy. 

This  fifth  book  of  Moses  derives  its  name  from  the  title 
AEYTEPONOMION,  ( Deuteroiioviion,)  prefixed  to  it  by  the 
translators  of  the  Septuagint  version,  which  is  a  compound 
term,  signifying  the  second  law,  or  the  law  repeated ;  be- 
cause it  contains  a  repetition  of  the  law  of  God,  given  by 
Moses  to  the  Israelites.  From  a  comparison  of  Deut.  i; 
6,  with  xxiv.  1,  it  appears  to  have  been  written  by  Moses 
in  the  plains  of  Moab,  a  short  time  before  his  death  :  and 
this  circumstance  will  account  for  that  affectionate  ear- 
nestness with  which  he  addresses  the  Israelites.  The 
period  of  time  comprised  in  this  book  is  five  lunar  weeks, 
or,  according  to  some  chronologers,  about  two  months, 
viz.  :  from  the  first  day  of  the  eleventh  month  of  the 
fortieth  year,  after  the  exodus  of  Israel  from  Egypt,  to 
the  eleventh  day  of  the  twelfth  month  of  the  same  year, 
A.  M.  2553,  B.  c.  1451.  This  book  comprises  four  parts; 
viz.  : 

Part  I.  A  Repetition  of  the  History  related  in  the 
preceding  Books,   (ch.  i. — iv.) 

Part  II.  A  Repetition  of  the  Moral,  Ceremonial,  and 
Judicial  Law.  (ch.  v. — xxvi.) 

Part  III.  The  Confirmation  of  the  Law.  (ch.  xxvii. — 

XXX.) 

Part  IV.  The  Personal  History  of  Moses,  (ch.  xxxi. — 
xxxiii.) 

The  thirty-fourth  chapter  (which  relates  the  death  of  Moses)  has  most 
probably  been  detached  from  the  Book  of  Joshua:  for  Moses  could  not  re- 
cord his  own  death. 


CHAPTER  IL 


ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 


This  division  of  the  sacred  writings  comprises  twelve 
books,  viz. :  from  Joshua  to  Esther  inclusive  :  the  first 
seven  of  these  books  are,  by  the  Jews,  called  the  former 
prophets,  probably  because  they  treat  of  the  more  ancient 
periods  of  Jewish  history,  and  because  they  are  most 
justly  supposed  to  be  written  by  prophetical  men.  The 
events  recorded  in  these  books  occupy  a  period  of  almost 


ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS.  281 

one  thousand  years,  which  commences  at  the  death  of 
Moses,  and  terminates  with  the  great  national  reform 
effected  by  Nehemiah,  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
the  Babylonish  captivity. 


Sbction  I.— On  the  Book  of  Joshua. 

The  book  of  Joshua,  which  in  all  the  copies  of  the  Old 
Testament  immediately  follows  the  Pentateuch,  is  thus 
denominated,  because  it  contains  a  narration  of  the 
achievements  of  Joshua  the  son  of  Nun,  who  had  been 
the  minister  of  Moses,  and  succeeded  him  in  the  com- 
mand of  the  children  of  Israel.  It  has  always  been  re- 
ceived by  the  Jews  as  a  part  of  their  canon  of  Scripture. 

This  book  of  Joshua  comprises  the  history  of  about 
seventeen  years,  or,  according  to  some  chronologers,  of 
twenty-seven  or  thirty  years  :  it  relates, 

I.  The  History  of  the  Occupation  of  Canaan  by  the 
Israelites,  (ch.  i. — xii.) 

II.  The  Division  of  the  Conquered  Land.  (ch.  xiii. — 
xxii.) 

III.  The  Assembling  of  the  People,  the  Dying  Address 
and  Counsels  of  Joshua,  his  Death,  and  Burial,  &c.  (ch. 
xxiii.,  xxiv.) 


Section  II. — On  the  Book  of  Judges. 

The  book  of  Judges  derives  its  name  from  its  contain- 
ing the  history  of  the  Israelites,  from  the  death  of  Joshua 
to  the  time  of  Eli,  under  the  administration  of  thirteen 
Judges,  and  consequently  before  the  establishment  of  the 
regal  government.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  written 
by  the  prophet  Samuel  :  in  it  are  related, 

I.  The  Slate  of  the  Israelites  after  the  Death  of  Joshua, 
until  they  began  to  turn  aside  from  serving  the  Lord, 
(ch.  i. — iii.) 

II.  The  History  of  the  Oppressions  of  the  Israelites, 
and  their  Deliverances  by  the  Judges,  (ch.  iv. — xvi.) 

III.  An  Account  of  the  Introduction  of  Idolatry  among 
the  Israelites,  and  the  consequent  corruption  of  religion 

24* 


282  ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 

and  manners  among  them ;  for  which  God  gave  them  up 
into  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  (ch.  xvii. — xxi.) 


Sbction  III.— On  the  Book  of  Ruth. 

The  book  of  Ruth  is  generally  considered  as  an  Ap- 
pendix to  that  of  Judges,  and  an  introduction  to  that  of 
Samuel  :  it  is  therefore,  with  great  propriety,  placed  be- 
tween the  books  of  Judges  and  Samuel.  It  relates,  with 
equal  beauty  and  simplicity,  the  history  of  a  Moabilish 
damsel,  who  renounced  idolatry,  and  by  marriage  was 
ingrafted  among  the  Israelites.  David  was  descended 
from  her.  The  adoption  of  Ruth,  a  heathen  converted 
to  Judaism,  into  the  line  of  Christ,  has  generally  been 
considered  as  a  pre-intimalion  of  the  admission  of  the 
Gentiles  into  the  church.  A  further  design  of  this  book 
is,  to  evince  the  care  of  Divine  Providence  over  those 
who  sincerely  fear  God,  in  raising  the  pious  Ruth  from 
a  state  of  the  deepest  adversity  to  that  of  the  highest 
prosperity. 


Section  IV.— On  the  two  Books  of  Samuel. 

In  the  Jewish  canon  of  Scripture  these  two  books  form 
but  one,  termed  in  Hebrew  the  Book  of  Samuel,  probably 
because  the  greater  part  of  the  first  book  was  written  by 
that  prophet,  whose  history  and  transactions  it  relates. 
According  to  the  Talmudiral  writers,  the  first  twenty-four 
chapters  of  the  first  book  of  Samuel  were  written  by  the 
prophet  whose  name  they  bear;  and  the  remainder  of  that 
book,  together  with  the  whole  of  the  second  book,  was 
commiled  to  writing  by  the  prophets  Gad  and  Nathan, 
agreeably  to  the  practice  of  the  prophets,  who  wrote  me- 
moirs of  the  transactions  of  their  respective  times. 

The  FIRST  BOOK  of  Samuel  contains  the  history  of  the 
Jewish  church  and  polity,  from  the  birth  of  Samuel, 
during  the  judicature  of  Eli.  to  the  death  of  Saul,  the  first 
king  of  Israel  ;  a  period  of  nearly  eitrhty  years,  viz. : 
from  the  year  of  the  world  2869  to  2949.     It  comprises, 


ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS.  283 

I.  The  Transactions  under  the  Judicature  of  Eli.  (ch. 
i. — iv.) 

II.  The  History  of  the  Israelites  during  the  Judicature 
of  Samuel,  (ch.  v. — xiii.) 

III.  The  History  of  Saul  and  the  transactions  of  his 
Reign,  (ch.  xiv. — xxxi.) 

The  SECOND  BOOK  of  Samuel  contains  the  history  of 
David,  the  second  king  of  Israel,  during  a  period  of  nearly 
forty  years,  viz. :  from  the  year  of  the  viorld  2948  to 
2988  ;  and,  by  recording  the  translation  of  the  kingdom 
from  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  to  that  of  Judah,  it  relates  the 
partial  accomplishment  of  the  prediction  delivered  in 
Gen.  xlix.  10.  This  book  consists  of  three  principal 
divisions,  relating  the  triumphs  and  the  troubles  of  David, 
and  his  transactions  subsequent  to  his  recovery  of  the 
throne,  whence  he  was  driven  for  a  short  time  by  the  re- 
bellion of  his  son  Absalom. 

I.  The  Triumphs  of  David,  (ch.  i. — x.) 

II.  The  Troubles  of  David,  and  their  cause,  together 
with  his  repentance,  and  subsequent  recovery  of  the  di- 
vine favour,  (ch.  xi. — xxiv.) 

III.  David's  Restoration  to  his  Throne,  and  subsequent 
transactions,  (ch.  xx.— xxiv.) 

The  two  books  of  Samuel  are  of  very  considerable  im- 
portance for  illustratmg  the  book  of  Psalms,  to  which  they 
may  be  considered  as  a  key. 


Section  V.— On  the  Two  Books  of  Kings. 

The  two  books  of  Kings  are  closely  connected  with 
those  of  Samuel.  The  origin  and  gradual  increase  of  the 
united  kingdom  of  Israel,,  under  Saul  and  his  successor 
David,  having  been  described  in  the  latter,  the  books  now 
under  consideration  relate  its  height  of  glory  under  So- 
lomon, its  division  into  two  kingdoms,  under  his  son  and 
successor  Rehoboam,  the  causes  of  that  division,  and  the 
consequent  decline  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Israel  and 
Judah,  until  their  final  subversion  ;  the  ten  tribes  being 
carried  captive  into  Assyria  by  Shalmenezer,  and  Judah 
and  Benjamin  to  Babylon  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  In  tho 
Jewish  canon  these  books  constitute  but  one  volume, 
termed  Melakim,  or  Kings,  having  been  divided  at  some 


2Q4  ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 

unknown  period  into  two  parts,  for  the  convenience  of  read- 
ing. In  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  copies  they  are  term- 
ed the  third  and  fourth  book  of  Kings ;  they  are  gene- 
rally ascribed  to  Ezra. 

The  FIRST  BOOK  OF  Kings  embraces  a  period  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-six  years,  from  the  anointing  of  Solo- 
mon and  his  admission  as  a  partner  in  the  throne  with 
David,  A.  M.  2989,  to  the  death  of  Jehoshaphat,  a.  m.  3115. 

The  first  book  of  Kings  may  be  divided  into  two  prin- 
cipal parts,  containing,  1.  The  history  of  the  undivided 
kingdom  under  Solomon  ;  and,  2.  The  history  of  the  di- 
vided kingdom  under  Rehoboam  and  his  successors,  and 
Jeroboam  and  his  successors. 

Part  I.  The  History  of  Solomon's  reign  (ch.  i. — x.) 
contains  a  narrative  of 

1.  The  latter  days  of  David;  the  inauguration  of  Solomon  as  his  asso- 
ciate in  the  kingdom,  and  his  designation  to  be  his  successor,  (ch.  i.  ii. 
1-11.) 

2.  The  Reign  of  Solomon  from  the  death  of  David  to  his  dedication  of 
the  temple,  (ii.  12—46,  iii.— viii.) 

3.  The  Transactions  during  the  remainder  of  Solomon's  reign,  (ix.— xi.) 

Part  II.  The  history  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Judah 
and  Israel,  (ch.  xi. — xxii.) 

1.  The  accession  of  Rehoboam,  and  the  division  of  the  two  kingdoms, 
(ch.  xi.) 

2.  The  reigns  of  Rehoboam,  king  of  Judah,  and  of  Jeroboam  I.  king  of 
Israel,  (xii.— xiv.) 

3.  The  reigns  of  Abijam  and  Asa,  kings  of  Judah,  and  the  contemporary 
reigns  of  Nadab,  Baasha,  Elali,  Zimri,  Omri,  and  the  commencement  of 
Ahab's  reign,  (xv,  xvi.) 

4.  The  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  king  of  Judah,  and  of  his  contemporaries 
Ahab  and  Ahaziah,  (in  part,)  during  which  the  prophet  Elisha  flourished, 
(xvii.— xxii.) 

The  SECOND  BOOK  OF  Kings  continues  the  contemporary 
history  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  from 
the  death  of  Jehoshaphat,  a.  m.  3115,  to  the  destruction 
of  the  city  and  temple  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
A.  M.  3416,  a  period  of  three  hundred  years.  The  three 
last  verses  of  the  preceding  book  have  been  improperly 
disjoined  from  this.  The  history  of  the  two  kingdoms  is 
interwoven  in  this  book,  which  may  be  divided  into  two 
parts,  viz. : 

Part  I.  The  contemporary  History  of  the  Kingdoms 
of  Israel  and  Judah,  to  the  end  of  the  former,  (ch.  i. — 
xvii.j 


ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS.  285 

Part  II.   The  History  of  the  decline  and  fall  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah.  (ch.  xviii.-^xxv.) 


Sbction  VI.— On  the  Two  Books  of  Chronicles. 

The  Jews  comprise  the  two  books  of  Chronicles  in  one 
book,  which  they  call  Dibre  Hajamin,  that  is,  The  Words 
of  Days,  probably  from  the  circumstance  of  their  being 
compiled  out  of  diaries  or  annals,  in  which  were  recorded 
the  various  events  related  in  these  books.  In  the  Septua- 
gint  version  they  are  termed  Uapa\tnro[i€vo}v  (Paraleipome' 
non,)  or  of  Things  omitted;  because  many  things  which 
were  omitted  in  the  former  part  of  the  sacred  history  are 
here  not  only  supplied,  but  some  narrations  are  also  en- 
larged, while  others  are  added.  The  appellation  of  Chron- 
icles was  given  to  these  books  by  Jerome,  because  they 
contain  an  abstract,  in  order  of  time,  of  the  whole  of  the 
sacred  history,  to  the  time  when  they  were  written. 

These  books  were  evidently  compiled  from  others,  which 
were  written  at  different  times,  some  before  and  others 
after  the  Babylonish  captivity  :  the  period  of  time  con- 
tained in  these  books,  is  about  3468  years.  They  may  be 
divided  into  four  parts,  viz. : 

Part  I.  Genealogical  Tables  from  Adam  to  the  time  of 
Ezra.  (1  Chron.  i. — ix.) 

Part  II.  The  Histories  of  Saul  and  David.  (I  Chron. 
ix.  35 — 44,  X. — xxix.) 

Part  III.  The  History  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Is- 
rael and  Judah  under  Solomon.  (1  Chron.  xxix.  23 — 30. 
2  Chron.  i. — ix.) 

Part  IV.  The  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Judah,  from 
the  secession  of  the  ten  tribes,  under  Jeroboam,  to  its  ter- 
mination by  Nebuchadnezzar.  (2  Chron.  x. — -xxxvi.) 

As  the  books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles,  relate 
the  same  histories,  they  should  each  be  constantly  read  and 
collated  together;  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
a  more  comprehensive  view  of  Jewish  history,  but  also 
in  order  to  illustrate  from  one  book  what  may  appear  to 
be  obscure  in  either  of  the  others. 


•5«>i 


286  ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 


Section  VII.— On  the  Book  of  Ezra.  ^ 

The  Books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  were  anciently 
reckoned  by  the  Jews  as  one  volume,  and  were  divided  by 
them  into  the  first  and  second  books  of  Ezra.  The  same 
division  is  recognised  by  the  Greek'and  Latin  churches; 
but  the  third  book,  assigned  to  Ezra,  and  received  as  ca- 
nonical by  the  Greek  church,  is  the  same,  in  substance, 
as  the  book  which  properly  bears  his  name,  but  interpo- 
lated. And  the  fourth  book,  which  has  been  attributed  to 
him,  is  a  manifest  forgery,  in  which  the  marks  of  falsehood 
are  plainly  discernible,  and  which  was  never  unanimously 
received  as  canonical  either  by  tiie  Greek  or  by  the  Latin 
church,  although  some  of  the  fathers  have  cited  it,  and 
the  Latin  church  has  borrowed  some  words  out  of  it.  It 
is  npt  now  extant  in  Greek,  and  never  was  extant  in  He- 
brew. Ezra  is  generally  admitted  to  have  been  the  author 
of  the  book  whicli  bears  his  name  :  every  page,  indeed,  of 
the  book  proves  that  the  writer  of  it  was  personally  pre- 
sent at  the  transactions  which  he  has  recorded. 

The  book  of  Ezra  harmonizes  most  strictly  with  the  pro- 
phecies of  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  which  it  materially  elu- 
cidates. (Compare  Ezra  v.  with  Hagg.  i.  12.  and  Zeeh. 
iii.  iv.)  It  evinces  the  paternal  care  of  the  Almighty  over 
his  chosen  people,  and  consists  of  two  parts,  viz.  : 

I.  A  Narrative  of  events  from  the  return  of  the  Jews 
under  Zerubbabel  to  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  (ch.  i. 
-vi.) 

II.  The  arrival  of  Ezra  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  Refor- 
mation made  there  by  him.  (vii. — x.) 

The  zeal  and  piety  of  Ezra  appear,  in  this  book,  in  a 
most  conspicuous  point  of  view:  his  memory  has  always^ 
been  held  in  the  highest  reverence  by  the  Jews. 


\ 


Sbction  vm.— On  the  Book  of  Nehemiah. 

Some  emment  fathers  of  the  Christian  church  have  as- 
cribed this  book  to  Ezra ;  but  that  Nehemiah,  whose 
name  it  bears,  and  who  was  cup-bearer  to  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus,  was  the  author  of  it,  there  cannot  be  any 
reasonable  doubt:  the  whole  of  it  being  written  in  his 


ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS.  287 

name,  and,  what  is  very  unusual  when  compared  with  the 
preceding  sacred  historians,  being  written  in  the  first  per- 
son.    His  book  contains, 

I.  An  Account  of  Nehemiah's  departure  from  Shushan, 
with  a  royal  commission  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  Jerusalem, 
and  his  first  arrival  there,  (ch.  i.,  ii.  1 — 11.) 

II.  An  Account  of  the  building  of  the  walls,  notwith- 
standing the  obstacles  interposed  by  Sanballat.  (ch.  ii.  12 
—20,  iii. — vii.  4. 

III.  The  first  reformation  accomplished  by  Nehemiah. 
(ch.  vii. — xii.) 

IV.  The  second  reformation  accomplished  by  Nehe- 
miah on  his  second  return  to  Jerusalem,  and  his  correc- 
tion of  the  abuses  which  had  crept  in  during  his  absence, 
(xiii.) 

The  administration  of  this  pious  man  and  excellent 
governor  lasted  about  thirty-six  years,  to  the  year  of  the 
world  3574,  according  to  some  chronologers,  but  Dr.  Pri- 
deaux  has,  with  more  probability,  fixed  it  to  the  year  3595. 
The  Scripture  history  closes  with  the  book  of  Nehemiah. 


Section  IX. — On  the  Book  of  Esther. 

This  book,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  Jewish 
captive  whose  history  it  chiefly  relates,  is  by  the  Jews 
termed  Megilloth  Esther^  or  the  volume  of  Esther.  The 
history  it  contains  comes  in  between  the  sixth  and  seventh 
chapters  of  Ezra  :  its  authenticity  was  questioned  by  some 
of  the  fathers,  in  consequence  of  the  name  of  God  being 
omitted  throughout,  but  it  has  always  been  received  as 
canonical  by  the  Jews.  The  book  consists  of  two  parts, 
detailing, 

I.  The  promotion  of  Esther  to  the  throne  of  Persia ; 
and  the  essential  service  rendered  to  the  king  by  Mordecai, 
in  detecting  a  plot  against  his  life,  (civ  i-,  ii^) 

II.  The  advancement  of  Haman,  his  designs  against 
the  Jews,  and  their  frustration ;  and  the  advancement  of 
Mordecai.  (ch.  iii. — x.) 

In  our  copies,  the  book  of  Esther  terminates  with  the 
third^verse  of  the  tenth  chapter;  but  in  the  Greek  and 
Vulgate  Bibles,  there  are  ten  more  verses  annexed  to  it, 


288 


ON  THE  POETICAL  BOOKS 


together  with  six  additional  chapters,  which  the  Greek  and 
Romish  churches  account  to  be  canonical.  As,  however, 
they  are  not  extant  in  Hebrew,  they  are  expunged  from  the 
sacred  canon  by  Protestants,  and  are  supposed  to  have 
been  compiled  by  some  Hellenistic  Jew. 


CHAPTER  ni. 


ON   THE   POETICAL  BOOKS, 


Though  some  of  the  Sacred  Writings,  which  present 
themselves  to  our  notice  in  the  present  chapter,  are  ante- 
rior in  point  of  date  to  the  Historical  Books,  yet  they  are 
usually  classed  by  themselves  under  the  title  of  the  Poet- 
ical Books  ;  because  they  are  almost  wholly  composed  in 
Hebrew  verse.  This  appellation  is  of  considerable  anti- 
quity. The  Poetical  Books  are  five  in  number,  viz.:  Job, 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,and  the  Canticles,  or  Song 
of  Solomon  :  in  the  Jewish  canon  of  Scripture  they  are 
classed  among  the  Hagiographa,  or  Holy  Writings ;  and 
in  our  Bibles  they  are  placed  between  the  Historical  and 
Prophetical  Books. 


Section  I.— On  the  book  of  Job. 

This  book  has  derived  its  title  from  the  venerable  patri- 
arch Job,  whose  prosperity,  afflictions, and  restoration  from 
the  deepest  adversity,  are  here  recorded,  together  with  his 
exemplary  and  uncqiuilled  patience  under  all  his  calami- 
ties. Some  critics  have  doubted,  or  affected  to  doubt,  the 
existence  of  such  a  character  as  Job  ;  but  that  point  is 
satisfactorily  determined  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel  (xiv.  14,) 
and  theajiostle  James,  (v.  11,)  both  of  whom  mention  him 
as  a  real  ciiaracter.  The  length  of  his  \'\(o  places  him  in 
the  patriarchal  times:  and  Dr.  Hales,  besides  other  evi- 
dences, which  cannot  here  be  detailed,  has  rendered  it 
highly  probable  that  he  lived  about  184  years  before  the 
time  of  Abraham.     He  dwelt  in  Uz  or  Iduni.Ta. 

Among  the  conflicting  opinions  which  have  been  ad- 
vanced respecting  the  author  of  this  book,  the  most  pro- 


ON  THE  POETICAL  BOOKS.  289 

bable  is  that  of  Archbishop  Magee,  who  supposes  it  to 
have  been  originally  written  by  Job,  and  subsequently 
transcribed  by  Moses  ;  who  having  applied  it  to  the  use 
of  the  Jews,  and  given  it  the  sanction  of  his  authority,  it 
thenceforth  became  enrolled  among  the  sacred  writings. 
It  has  been  quoted  by  almost  every  Hebrew  writer  from 
the  age  of  Moses  to  that  of  Malachi.  In  its  form,  this 
poem  approximates  to  the  Mekama,  or  philosophical  dis- 
courses of  the  Arabian  Poets. 

Nothing,  perhaps,  has  contributed  more  to  render  the 
poem  of  Job  obscure,  than  the  common  division  into  chap- 
ters and  verses  ;  by  which  not  only  the  unity  of  the  gene- 
ral subject,  but  frequently  that  of  a  single  paragraph,  or 
clause,  is  broken. 

The  poem  may  be  divided  into  six  parts ;  viz. :  The 
Jirst  of  these  contains  the  exordium  or  narrative  part, 
which  is  written  in  prose  ;  (ch.  i.,  ii.  ;)  the  second  comprises 
the  first  debate  or  dialogue  of  Job  and  his  friends ;  (iii. — 
xiv.  ;)  the  third  includes  the  second  series  of  debate  or 
controversy  ;  (xv. — xxi.  ;)  the  fourth  comprehends  the 
third  series  of  controversy  ;  (xxii. — xxxi. ;)  in  the  fifth 
part  Elihu  sums  up  the  argument  ;  (xxxii. — xxxvii. ;)  and 
in  the  sixth  part  Jehovah  determines  the  controversy,  Job 
humbles  himself,  is  accepted,  and  restored  to  health  and 
prosperity,  (xxxviii. — xlii.) 

Independently  of  the  important  instruction  and  benefit 
which  may  be  derived  from  a  devout  perusal  of  the  book 
of  Job,  this  divine  poem  is  of  no  small  value,  as  transmit- 
ting to  us  a  faithful  delineation  of  the  patriarchal  doctrines 
of  religion,  and  particularly  the  existence  of  a  God,  who 
is  the  rewarder  of  them  that  diligently  seek  him,  and 
a  day  of  future  resurrection,  judgment,  and  final  retri- 
bution. 


Section  II.— On  the  Book  of  Psalma. 

This  book  is  entitled  in  the  Hebrew  Sepher  TehiUim^ 
that  is,  the  Book  of  Hymns  or  Praises;  because  the 
praises  of  God  constitute  their  chief  subject  matter :  and 
as  they  were  set,  not  only  to  be  sung  with  the  voice,  but 
also  to  be  accompanied  with  musical  instruments,  the  Sep- 
tuagint  version  designates  them  Bi^Aos^aXz/wi/,  (BihlosPsaU 
25 


290  ON  THE  POETICAL  UUOKS. 

mon,)  the  Book  of  Psalms^  by  which  name  they  are  cited 
in  Luke  xx.  42 ;  and  this  appellation  is  retained  in  our 
Bibles.  The  right  of  the  book  of  Psalms  to  a  place  in 
the  sacred  canon  has  never  been  disputed :  they  are  fre- 
quently alluded  to  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  are  often 
cited  by  our  Lord  and  his  apostles  as  the  work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  They  aro.  generally  termed  the  Psalms  of  David, 
that  Hebrew  monarch  being  their  chief  author.  Many 
of  them  bear  his  name,  and  were  composed  on  occasion 
of  remarkable  circumstances  in  his  life,  his  dangers,  his 
aflflictions,  and  his  deliverances.  Many  of  them,  however, 
are  strictly  prophetical  of  the  Messiah,  of  whom  David ; 
was  an  eminent  type  :  but  others  were  composed  during 
the  reign  of  Solomon,  or  during  and  subsequent  to  the 
captivity.  We  have  no  information  when  these  divine 
poems  were  collected  into  a  volume.  Tlie  Psalms  of 
Degrees,  or  Odes  of  Ascension,  as  Bishop  Lowth  terms 
them,  are  supposed  to  have  derived  this  name  from  their 
being  sunjr,  when  the  people  came  up  either  to  worship  in 
Jerusalem,  at  the  annual  festivals,  or  perhaps  irom  the 
Babylonish  captivity.  The  word  "  Selah,"  which  is  found 
in  many  of  the  Psalms,  appears  to  have  been  inserted  in 
order  to  point  out  something  worthy  of  most  attentive 
observation. 

For  a  Table  of  those  Psalms  which  are  strictly  prophet- 
ical of  the  Messiah,  see  pp.  102,  103,  supra. 

The  book  of  Psalms,  being  composed  in  Hebrew  verse, 
must  generally  be  studied  accordinir  to  the  laws  of  Hebr<jw 
Poetry,  whicii  have  been  noticed  in  pj).  108 — 111:  and 
this  the  English  reader  will  find  little  difTiculty  in  accom- 
plishing, in  our  admirably  fHithfiil  autliorized  version.  At- 
tention to  the  following  hints  will  also  enable  him  to  enter 
into  their  force  and  meaning. 

1.  Investigate  the  Argument  of  each  psalm. 

This  13  somfliiDPS  intimated  in  the  pr.pfixort  title:  but  ns  these  inserlp- 
lioiia  are.  not  always  K'-nuine,  It  will  he  prtfcrable,  In  every  case,  to  de- 
duee  the  argument  from  u  Uili'Tenland  attentive  readinc  of  the  psalm  It- 
self, andtht'n  to  form  our  opinion  concerning  the  correctncbo  of  the  title, 
If  there  be  any. 

2.  With  this  view,  examine  the  Historical  Origin  of  the  psalm, 
or  the  circumstances  that  led  the  sacred  poet  to  compose  it. 

Mvirh  ndvnntaRe  and  naslFtnnce  may  he  derived  from  Btudyin?  the  psalms 
thronologically,  and  comparing  them  with  the  historical  boo.;d  of  the  Old 


ON  THE  POETICAL  BOOKS.  291 

Testament,  particularly  those  which  treat  of  the  Israelites  and  Jews,  from 
the  origin  of  their  monarchy  to  their  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity. 

3.  Attend  to  the  Structure  of  the  psalms. 

The  psalms,  being  principally  designed  for  the  national  worship  of  the 
Jews,  are  adapted  to  choral  singing :  attention  to  this  circumstance  will 
enable  us  better  to  enter  into  their  spirit  and  meaning. 

For  a  Table  of  the   Psalms  adapted  to  private  reading 
or  devotion,  see  the  Appendix,  No.  IV. 


Sbction  m.— On  the  Books  of  Proverbs. 

The  book  of  Proverbs  has  always  been  ascribed  to  So- 
lomon, whose  name  it  bears,  though,  from  the  frequent  re- 
petition of  the  same  sentences,  as  well  as  from  some  varia- 
tions in  style  which  have  been  discovered,  doubts  have 
been  entertained  whether  he  really  was  the  author  of  every 
maxim  it  comprises.  As  it  is  nowhere  said  that  Solomon 
himself  made  a  collection  of  proverbs  and  sentences,  the 
general  opinion  is,  that  several  persons  made  a  collection 
of  them:  Hezekiah,  among  others,  as  mentioned  in  the 
twenty-fifth  chapter  :  Agur,  Isaiah,  and  Ezra,  might  have 
done  the  same.  This  book  is  frequently  cited  by  the  apos- 
tles :  its  scope  is  to  instruct  men  in  the  deepest  mysteries 
of  true  wisdom  and  understanding,  the  height  and  perfec- 
tion of  which  is,  the  true  knowledge  of  the  divine  will, 
and  the  sincere  fear  of  the  Lord.  (Prov.  i.  2 — 7,  ix.  10.) 
It  may  be  divided  into  five  parts,  viz.  : 

Part  I.  In  the  proem  or  exordium,  containing  the  first 
mTie  chapters,  the  teacher  gives  his  pupil  a  series  of  ad- 
monitions, directions,  cautions,  and  excitements  to  the  study 
of  wisdom. 

Part  II.  extends  from  chapter  x.  to  xxii.  16,  and  con- 
sists of  what  may  be  strictly  and  properly  called  proverbs^ 
— namely,  unconnected  sentences,  expressed  with  much 
neatness  and  simplicity. 

Part  III.  reaches  from  chapter  xxii.  17,  to  xxv.  inclu- 
sive :  in  this  part  the  tutor  drops  the  sententious  style, 
and  addresses  his  pupil  as  present,  to  whom  he  gives 
renewed  and  connected  admonitions  to  the  study  of  wis- 
dom. 

The  proverbs  contained  in 

Part  IV.   are  supposed  to  have  been  selected  from 


292  ON  THE  POETICAL  BOOKS. 

some  larger  collection  of  Solomon  "  by  the  men  of  Heze- 
kiah," — that  is,  by  the  prophets  whom  he  employed  to  re- 
store the  service  and  writings  of  the  Jewish  church.  (2 
Chron.  xxxi.  20,  21.)  This  part,  like  the  second,  consists 
of  detached  unconnected  sentences,  and  extends  from 
chapter  xxv.  to  xxix.  Some  of  the  proverbs,  which  Solo- 
mon had  introduced  into  the  former  part  of  the  book,  are 
here  repeated. 

Part  V.  Comprises  chapters  xxx.  and  xxxi.  In  the 
former  are  included  the  wise  observations  and  instructions 
delivered  by  Agur,  the  son  Jakeh,  to  his  pupils,  Ithiel  and 
Ucal.  The  thirty-first  chapter  contains  the  precepts 
which  were  given  to  Lemuel  by  his  mother,  who  is  sup- 
posed by  some  to  have  been  a  Jewish  woman  married  to 
some  neighbouring  prince,  and  who  appears  to  have  been 
most  ardently  desirous  to  guard  him  against  vice,  to  esta- 
blish him  in  the  principles  of  justice,  and  to  unite  him  to 
a  wife  of  the  best  qualities.  Of  Agur  we  know  nothing  ; 
nor  have  any  of  the  commentators  offered  so  much  as  a 
plausible  conjecture  respecting  him. 


Section  IV.— On  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastes. 

The  title  of  this  book,  in  our  Bibles,  is  derived  from  the 
Septuagint  version,  EKK\r,(Tuis-r,g,  (Ecclesiastes J  signifying  a 
apreacker^  or  one  who  harangues  a  public  congregation. 
In  Hebrew  it  is  termed,  from  the  initial  words,  Dibrc  Co- 
helcth^  "  the  Words  of  the  Preacher  ;"  by  whom  may  be 
intended,  either  the  person  assembling  the  people,  or  he 
wl;o  addresses  them  when  convened.  Although  this  book 
does  not  bear  the  name  of  Solomon,  it  is  evident  from 
several  passages  that  he  was  the  author  of  it.  Compare 
cli.  i.  12.  16,  ii.  4 — 9,  and  xii.  9,  10.  Its  scope  is  ex- 
plicitly announced  in  ch.  i.  2,  and  xii.  13,  viz. :  to  de- 
monstrate tiie  vanity  of  all  earthly  objects,  and  to  draw 
off  men  from  the  pursuit  of  them,  as  an  apparent  good,  to 
the  fear  of  God,  and  communion  witii  him,  as  to  the 
highest  and  ow\y  permanent  good  in  this  life,  and  to  show 
that  men  must  seek  for  happiness  beyond  the  grave.  It 
consists  of  two  parts  ;  viz. : 

Part  I.  The  Vanity  of  all  earthly  conditions,  occupa- 
tions, and  pleasures,  (ch.  i. — vi.  9.) 


ON  THE  POETICAL  B00K3.  293 

Part  II.  The  Nature,  Excellence,  and  Beneficial  Effecla 
of  true  Religion,  (ch.  vi. — xii.  7.) 
The  Conclusion,  (ch.  xii.  8 — 14.J 


Sbction  v. — On  the  Song  of  Solomon. 

This  book  has  always  been  reputed  to  be  the  produc- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  monarch.  Concerning  its  structure, 
there  is  great  difference  of  opinion  among  critics,  whose 
various  hypotheses  are  discussed  in  the  author's  larger 
work.  The  most  probable  opinion  is  that  which  refers  it 
to  the  idyls  of  the  Arabian  Poets.  Dr.  John  Mason  Good 
makes  them  to  be  twelve  in  number ;  viz. : 

oini 

IDYL  1  containing chap.  i.  1—8 

2 i.  9,  ii.  7. 

3 ii.  8—17. 

4 lit.  1—5. 

5 iii.  6,  iv.  7. 

6 iv.  8,  V.  1. 

7 V.  2,  vi.  10. 

8 vi.  11—13. 

9 vij.  1—9. 

10 vii.  10,  vii.  4 

11 viii.  5—7. 

12 viii.  8—14. 

This  poem  was  composed  on  occasion  of  Solomon's 
marriage.  That  it  is  a  mystical  poem,  or  allegory,  all 
sound  interpreters  are  agreed ;  though  some  expositors, 
who  have  not  entered  sufficiently  into  the  spirit  and 
meaning  of  Oriental  poesy,  have  caused  particular  pas- 
sages to  be  considered  as  coarse  and  indelicate,  which,  in 
the  original,  are  altogether  the  reverse ;  while  others 
have  so  confounded  the  literal  and  allegorical  senses  as 
to  give  neither,  distinctly  or  completely.  At  the  same 
time,  they  have  applied  the  figures  to  such  a  variety  of 
objects,  as  to  leave  the  reader  still  to  seek  the  right; 
and,  by  their  minute  dissection  of  the  allegory,  they  have 
not  only  destroyed  its  consistency  and  beauty,  but  have 
also  exposed  the  poem  to  the  unmerited  ridicule  of  pro- 
fane minds.  Much,  unquestionably,  has  been  done,  by 
later  writers,  towards  elucidating  the  language  and  allu- 
sions of  the  Song  of  Songs  by  the  aid  of  Oriental  litera- 
ture and  manners :  but,  after  all  the  labours  of  learned 
25* 


294     GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  PROPHETS, 

men,  there  will,  perhaps,  be  found  many  expressions  which 
are  very  difficult  to  us,  both  as  to  the  literal  meaning, 
and  the  spiritual  instruction  intended  to  be  conveyed  by 
them  ;  and  some  descriptions  must  not  be  judged  by 
modern  notions  of  delicacy.  But  the  grand  outlines, 
soberly  interpreted,  in  the  obvious  meaning  of  the  allegory, 
so  accord  with  the  affections  and  experience  of  the  sin- 
cere Christian,  '*  that  he  will  hardly  ever  read  and  medi- 
tate upon  them,  in  a  spirit  of  humble  devotion,  without 
feeling  a  conviction  that  no  other  poem,  of  the  same  kind, 
extant  in  the  world,  could,  without  most  manifest  violence, 
be  so  explained  as  to  describe  the  state  of  his  heart  at 
different  times,  and  to  excite  admiring,  adoring,  grateful 
love  to  God  our  Saviour,  as  this  does."  (Scott's  Pref.  to 
Sol.  Song.) 


CHAPTER  IV. 

GBNBRAL  OBSERVATIONS   ON   THE   PROPHETS  AND  THEIR  WRlTrNGS. 

We  now  enter  on  the  fourth,  or  prophetical  part  of  the 
Old  Testament,  according  to  the  division  which  is  gene- 
rally adopted,  but  which  (as  we  have  already  seen  in 
page  79,  supra,)  forms  the  second  division,  according  to 
the  Jewish  classification  of  the  sacred  volume.  This 
portion  of  the  Scriptures  is  termed  prophetical,  because  it 
chiefly  consists  of  predictions  of  future  events;  though 
many  historical  and  doctrinal  passages  are  interspersed 
through  the  writings  of  the  Pkophets,  as  there  also  are 
many  predictions  of  future  events  scattered  through  those 
books,  which  are  more  strictly  historical.  The  authors 
of  these  books  are,  by  way  of  eminence,  termed  Prophets^ 
that  is,  divinely  inspired  persons,  who  were  raised  up 
among  the  Israelites  to  be  the  ministers  of  God's  dispen- 
sations. The  prophets  are  usually  reckoned  among 
sacred  persons.  See  p.  230,  231,  svpra ;  and  some  ob- 
servations on  the  interpretation  of  Scripture  Prophecy, 
espedilly  the  predictions  relative  to  the  Messiah,  will 
be  found  in  pp.  144 — 148,  siipra. 

The  prophetical  books  are  sixteen  in  number,  (the  La- 
mentations of  Jeremiah  being  usually  considered  as  aa 


AND  THEIR  WRITINGS.  095 

appendix  to  his  predictions,)  and,  in  all  modern  editions 
of  the  Bible,  they  are  usually  divided  into  two  classes  ; 
viz. :  1.  The  Greater  Prophets,  comprising  the  writings 
of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel ;  who  have  been 
thus  designated  from  the  size  of  their  books,  not  because 
they  possessed  greater  authority  than  the  others.  2.  The 
Minor  Prophets,  comprising  the  writings  of  Hosea,  Joel, 
Amos,  Jonah,  Obadiah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Ze- 
phaniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi.  These  books 
were  anciently  written  in  one  volume,  by  the  Jews,  lest 
any  of  them  should  be  lost ;  some  of  their  writings  being 
very  short. 

Much  of  the  obscurity  which  hangs  over  the  prophetic 
writings  may  be  removed  by  perusing  them  in  the  order 
of  time  in  which  they  were  probably  written  ;  and  though 
the  precise  time  in  which  some  of  the  prophets  delivered 
their  predictions,  cannot,  perhaps,  be  traced  in  every  in- 
stance, yet  the  following  arrangement  of  the  prophets  in 
their  supposed  order  of  time,  (according  to  the  tables  of 
Blair,  Archbishop  Newcome,  and  other  eminent  critics, 
with  a  few  variations,)  will,  we  think,  be  found  suffi- 
ciently correct  for  the  right  understanding  of  their  pre- 
dictions. 

According  to  the  annexed  table,  the  times  when  the  pro- 
phets flourished  may  be  referred  to  three  periods ;  viz. :  1. 
Before  the  Babylonian  Captivity  ; — 2.  Near  to  and  during 
that  event ; — and,  3.  After  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
Babylon.  And  if,  in  these  three  periods,  we  parallel  the 
prophetical  writings  with  the  historical  books  written 
during  the  same  times,  they  will  materially  illustrate 
each  other. 


296 


OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  PROPHETS,  &C. 


Jonah 

Before 
Christ. 

Jehu  and  Jehoahaz,  ac- 
cording to  BishopLloyd; 
but  Joaeh  and  Jeroboam 
the  Second,    according 
to  Blair. 

Between  856 
and  784. 

Amos 

Between  810 
and  785. 

Uzziah,  ch.  1.  1. 

Jeroboam  the  Second, 
ch.i.  1. 

Hosea 

Between  810 
and  725. 

Uzziah,Jotham,.<haz,lhe 
third  year  of  Hezekiah. 

Jeroboam  the  Second, 
ch.  i.  1. 

Isaiah 

Between  910 
and  749. 

Uzziah, Jotham.Ahaz  and 
Hezekiah,   chap.   i.    1, 
and  perhaps  Manasseh. 

Joel 

Between  910 
and  660,  or 
later, 

Uzziah,   or  possibly  Ma- 
nasseh. 

Micah 

Between  758 
and  609. 

Jotham,   Ahaz,  and  He- 
zekiah, ch.  i.  1. 

Fekaa  ana  Hosea. 

Nahum 

;etween  720 
and  693 

Probablytowardstheclose 
of  Hezekiah's  reign. 

Zephaniah 

Between  640 
and  609. 

In  the  reign  of  Josiah 
ch.  i.  1. 

Jeremiah 

Between  6-23 
and  596. 

In  the  thirteenth  year  of 
Josiah. 

Habakkuk 

Between  612 
and  598. 

Probably  in  the  reign  of 
Jehoiakim. 

Daniel 

Between  606 
and  534. 

During  all  the  captivity. 

Obadiah 

Between  588 
and  593. 

Between  the  taking  of  Je- 
rusalem byNebuchadnez- 
zar,  and  the  destruction 
of  the  Edomitesby  him. 

Ezekiel 

Between  595 
and  536. 

During  part  of  the 
captivity. 

Haggai 

About  520 
to  518. 

After  the  return  from 
Babylon. 

Zechariah 

From    520  to 
519,or  longer. 

Malachi 

Between  436 
and  397. 

ON  THE  PROPHETS.  297 

CHAPTER  V. 

ON  THK  PROPHETS  WHO  FLOURISHED  BEFORE  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 

Section  I.— On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Jonah, 

BEFORE  CHRIST,  856 — 784. 

This  Book  is  by  the  Hebrews  called  Sepher  Jonah,  or 
the  Book  of  Jonah,  from  its  author  Jonah,  the  son  of 
Amittai,  who  was  a  native  of  Gath-Hepher  in  Galilee. 
(Jon.  i.  1,  with  Josh.  xix.  13.)  He  is  supposed  to  have 
prophesied  to  the  ten  tribes,  according  to  Bishop  Lloyd, 
toward  the  close  of  Jehu's  reign,  or  in  the  beginning  of 
Jehoahaz's  reign;  though  other  chronologers  place  him 
under  Joash  and  Jeroboam  II.,  about  forty  years  later. 
The  scope  of  this  book  is  to  show,  by  the  very  striking 
example  of  the  Ninevites,  the  divine  forbearance  and  long 
suffering  towards  sinners  who  are  spared  on  their  sincere 
repentance. 

The  book  of  Jonah  consists  of  two  parts  ;  viz.  : 

Part  I.  His  first  mission  to  Nineveh,  and  his  attempt 
to  flee  to  Tarshish,  and  its  frustration,  together  with  his 
delivery  from  the  stomach  of  the  great  fish  which  had 
swallowed  him.  (ch.  i.,  ii.) 

Part  n.  His  second  mission,  and  its  happy  result  to 
the  Ninevites,  who,  in  consequence  of  the  prophet's 
preaching,  repented  in  dust  and  ashes ;  (iii.  ;)  and  the  dis- 
content of  Jonah,  who,  dreading  to  be  thought  a  false 
prophet,  repined  at  the  divine  mercy  in  sparing  the  Nine- 
vites, whose  destruction  he  seems  to  have  expected,  (iv.) 

The  time  of  Jonah's  continuance  in  the  belly  of  the 
fish  was  a  type  of  our  Lord's  continuance  in  the  grave. 
(Luke  xi.  30.) 


Section  H.— On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Amos. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,  810 — 785. 

Amos,  the  third  of  the  minor  prophets,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  native  of  Tekoah,  a  small  town  in  the  king- 
dom of  Judah,  situate  about  four  leagues  to  the  south  of 
Jerusalem.     He  prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  Uzziah, 


298  ON  THE  PROPHETS  WHO  FLOURISHED 

king  of  Judah,  and  of  Jeroboam,  son  of  Joash.     His  pro- 
phecy consists  of  four  parts,  viz. : 

'Part  I.  The  Judgments  of  God  denounced  against  the 
neighbouring  Gentile  nations  ;  as 

The  Syrians,  (ch.  i.  1—5,)  which  see  fulfilled  in  2  Kings  xvi.  9 ;  the 
Philistines,  (i.  6 — 8,)  recorded  as  accomplished  in  2  Kings  xviil.  8,  Jer. 
xlvii.  1.  5,  and  2  Chron.  xxvi.  6  ;  the  Tyrians,  (i.  9,  10,)  the  Edonnites,  (i. 
11,  12.  compared  with  Jer.  xxvi.  9.  21,  xxvii.  3.  6,  and  1  Mace.  v.  3.)  the 
Ammonites,  (13 — 15,)  and  the  Moabiles.  (ii.  1 — 3.) 

Part  II.  The  Divine  Judgments  denounced  against 
Judah  and  Israel,  (ch.  ii.  4,  ix.  1 — 10.) 

Part  III.  Consolatory  Promises  to  the  Church,  de- 
scribing her  Restoration  by  the  Messiah,  (ch.  ix.  11 — 15.) 


Sbctiom  m.— On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Hoaea. 

BBFOHB   CHRIST,    810 — 725. 

Hosea,  of  whose  family  we  have  no  certain  information, 
prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  Uzziah,  Jotham,  and 
Aiiaz,  and  in  the  third  year  of  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah, 
and  during  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.  king  of  Israel ;  and 
it  is  most  probable  that  he  was  an  Israelite,  who  lived  in 
the  kingdom  of  Samaria,  or  of  the  ten  tribes,  as  his  pre- 
dictions are  chiefly  directed  against  their  wickedness  and 
idolatry.  But,  with  the  severest  denunciations  of  ven- 
geance, he  blends  promises  of  mercy.  The  prophecy  of 
Hosea  contains  fourteen  chapters,  which  may  be  divided 
into  five  sections,  or  discourses,  exclusive  of  the  title  in 
ch.  i.  1,  viz. : 

DiscoiRSE  I.  Under  the  figure  of  the  supposed  infide- 
lity of  the  prophet's  wife  is  represented  the  spiritual  infide- 
lity of  the  Israelites,  a  remnant  of  whom,  it  is  promised, 
shall  be  saved  (ch.  i.  2 — 1 1 ,)  and  they  are  exhorted  to 
forsake  idolatry,  (ii.  1 — 11.)  Promises  arc  then  intro- 
duced, on  the  general  conversion  of  the  twelve  tribes  to 
Christianity  ;  and  the  gracious  purposes  of  Jehovah 
toward  the  ten  tribes,  or  the  kingdom  of  Israel  in  parti- 
cular, are  represented  under  the  figure  of  the  prophet 
taking  back  his  wife  on  her  amendment,  (ii.  11 — 23,  iii.) 

Discourse  II.  A  reproof  of  the  bloodshed  and  idolatry 
of  the  Israelites,  against  which  the  inhabitants  of  Judah 


BEFORE  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY.  299 

are  exhorted  to  take  warning  :  interspersed  with  promises 
of  pardon,  (ch,  iv. — vi.  1 — 3.) 

Discourse  III.  The  prophet's  exhortations  to  repent- 
ance proving  ineffectual,  God  complains  by  him  of  their 
obstinate  iniquity  and  idolatry,  (ch.  vi.  4 — 11,  vii.  1 — 
10,)  and  denounces  that  Israel  will  be  carried  into  capti- 
vity into  Assyria  by  Sennacherib,  notwithstanding  their 
reliance  on  Egypt  for  assistance,  (vii.  11 — 16,  viii.) 

Discourse  IV.  The  captivity  and  dispersion  of  Israel 
is  further  threatened  ;  (ch.  ix.,  x.)  the  Israelites  are  re- 
proved for  their  idolatry,  yet  they  shall  not  be  utterly  de- 
stroyed, and  their  return  to  their  own  country  is  foretold, 
(xi.)  Renewed  denunciations  are  made  on  account  of 
their  idolatry,     (xii.,  xiii.  1 — 8.) 

Discourse  V.  After  a  terrible  denunciation  of  divine 
punishment,  intermixed  with  promises  of  restoration  from 
captivity,  (ch.  xiii.  9 — 16,)  the  prophet  exhorts  the  Is- 
raelites to  repentance,  and  furnishes  them  with  a  beauti- 
ful form  of  prayer  adapted  to  their  situation  ;  (xiv.  1 — 3  ;) 
and  foretells  their  reformation  from  idolatry,  together  with 
the  subsequent  restoration  of  all  the  tribes  from  their  dis- 
persed state,  and  their  conversion  to  the  Gospel.  (4 — 9.) 


Section  TV.— On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,  810—749. 

Though  fifth  in  the  order  of  time,  the  writings  of  the 
prophet  Isaiah  are  placed  first  in  order  of  the  prophetical 
books,  principally  on  account  of  the  sublimity  and  impor- 
tance of  his  predictions,  and  partly  also  because  the  book, 
which  bears  his  name,  is  larger  than  all  the  twelve  minor 
prophets  put  togetlier. 

Concerning  his  family  and  descent,  nothing  certain  has 
been  recorded,  except  what  he  himself  tells  us,  (i.  1,)  viz.: 
that  he  was  the  son  of  Amos,  and  discharged  the  prophetic 
office  in  the  days  of  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah, 
kings  of  Judah.  Concerning  the  time  or  manner  of  his 
death  nothing  certain  is  known.  Besides  the  predictions 
ascribed  to  him,  it  appears  from  1  Chron.  xxvi.  22,  that 
Isaiah  wrote  an  account  of  the  Acts  of  Uzziah^  king  of 


300  ON  THE  PROPHETS  WHO  FLOURISHED 

Judah  :  this  has  long  since  perished.  Of  all  the  prophets, 
none  liave  so  clearly  predicted  the  circumstances  relative  to 
the  advent,  sufferings,  atoning  death,  and  resurrection  of 
the  Messiah,  as  Isaiah  ;  who  has,  from  tiiis  circumstance, 
been  styled  tlie  Evangelical  Prophet.  His  predictions  (yet 
unfulfilled)  of  the  ultimate  triumph  and  extension  of  the 
Redeemer's  kingdom  are  unrivalled  for  the  splendour  of 
their  imagery,  and  the  beauty  and  sublimity  of  their 
language. 

Part  I.  contains  a  general  Description  of  the  State 
and  Condition  of  the  Jews,  in  the  several  periods  of  their 
history  ;  the  Promulgation  and  success  of  the  Gospel,  and 
the  coming  of  Messiah  to  judgment,  (ch.  i. — v.)  The  pre- 
dictions in  this  section  were  delivered  during  the  reign  of 
Uzziah  king  of  Judah. 

Part  II.  comprises  the  predictions  delivered  in  the 
reigns  of  Jotham  and  Ahaz.  (ch.  vi. — xii.) 

Part  III.  contains  various  predictions  against  the  Ba- 
bylonians, Assyrians,  Piiilistines,  and  other  nations  with 
whom  the  Jews  had  any  intercourse,  (ch.  xiii. — xxiv.) 

Part  IV.  contains  a  Prophecy  of  the  great  calamities 
that  sliould  befall  the  people  of  God,  His  merciful  preser- 
vation of  a  remnant  of  them,  and  of  their  restoration  to 
their  country,  of  their  conversion  to  the  Gospel,  and  the 
destruction  of  Antichrist,  (ch.  xxiv. — xxxiii.) 

Part  V.  comprises  the  historical  part  of  the  prophecy 
of  Isaiah,  (ch.  xxxvi. — xxxix.) 

Part  VI.  conjprises  a  series  of  prophecies,  delivered 
in  all  probability,  toward  the  close  of  Hezekiah's  reign, 
(ch.  xl. — Ixvi.) 

This  portion  of  Isaiah's  predictions  constitutes  the  most 
elegant  part  of  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Old  Testament. 
The  chief  subject  is  the  restoration  of  the  churcli,  which 
is  pursued  with  the  greatest  regularity.  But,  as  the  sub- 
ject of  this  very  beautiful  scries  of  prophecies  is  cliiefly 
of  the  consolatory  kirid,  th(>y  are  introduced  with  a  pro- 
mise of  the  restoration  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  return  of 
the  Jews  from  the  Bahylonian  captivity,  through  the  mer- 
ciful interposition  of  God.  At  the  same  time  this  redemp- 
tion from  Babylon  is  employed  as  an  image  to  shadow  out 
a  redemj)ti()n  of  an  infinitely  higher  and  more  important 
nature.     The  proj)het  connects  these  two  events  together, 


BEFORE  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 


301 


scarcely  ever  treating  of  the  former  without  throwing  in 
some  intimations  of  the  latter ;  and  sometimes  he  is  so 
fully  possessed  with  the  glories  of  the  future  more  remote 
kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  that  he  seems  to  leave  the  im- 
mediate subject  of  his  commission  almost  out  of  the 
question. 


Section  V.— On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Joel. 
BEFORE  CHRIST,  810 — 660,  GT  later. 

Concerning  the  family,  condition,  and  pursuits  of  this 
prophet,  nothing  certain  is  known  ;  hut  from  internal  evi- 
dence, we  are  authorized  to  place  him  in  the  reign  of  Uz- 
ziah.  Consequently  he  was  contemporary  with  Amos  and 
Hosea,  if  indeed  he  did  not  prophesy  before  Amos.  His 
book  consists  of  three  chapters,  which  may  be  divided  into 
three  discourses  or  parts,  viz. 

Part  I.  is  an  exhortation,  both  to  the  priests  and  to 
the  people,  to  repent,  by  reason  of  the  famine  brought 
upon  them  by  the  palmer-worm,  &c.  in  consequence  of 
their  sins ;  (ch.  i.  1 — 20.  ;)  and  is  followed  by  a  denunci- 
ation of  still  greater  calamities,  if  they  continued  impeni 
tent.  (ii.  1 — 11.) 

Part  II.  An  Exhortation  to  keep  a  public  and  solemn 
fast,  (ch.  ii..l2 — 17,)  with  a  promise  of  removing  the  cala- 
'mities  of  the  Jews  on  their  repentance  (18 — 26,)  and  of 
the  Effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  (27 — 32.  Compare  Acts 
ii.  17—21.) 

Part  III.  predicts  the  general  Conversion  and  return 
of  the  Jews,  and  the  destruction  of  their  opponents,  to- 
gether with  the  glorious  state  of  the  church  that  is  to  fol- 
low, (ch.  iii.) 


Section  VI.— On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Micah. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,  758 — 699. 

Micah,  the  third  of  the  minor  prophets,  was  a  native  of 
Morasthi,  a  small  town  in  the  southern  part  of  the  territory 

26 


302  ^^  "^^^  PROPHETS  WHO  FLOURISHED 

of  Judah  ;  and,  as  we  learn  from  the  commencement  of 
his  predictions,  propiiesied  in  the  reigns  of  Jotham,  Ahaz, 
and  Hezekiaii,  kings  of  that  country ;  consequently  he 
was  contemporary  with  Isaiah,  Joel,  Hosea,  and  Amos. 
His  book  contains  seven  chapters,  forming  three  parts ; 
viz. : 

Introduction,  or  title,  (i.  1.) 

Part  I.  comprises  the  prophecies  delivered  in  the  reign 
of  Jotham  king  of  Judah  (with  whom  Pekah  king  of  Israel 
was  contemporary,)  in  which  the  divine  judgments  are  de- 
nounced against  both  Israel  and  Judah  for  their  sins.  (ch. 
i.  2—10.) 

Part  II.  contains  the  predictions  delivered  in  the  reigns 
of  Ahaz  king  of  Judah  (with  whom  his  son  Hezekiah  was 
associated  in  the  jrovcrnment  during  the  latter  part  of  his 
life,)  and  of  Pekaii  king  of  Israel,  who  was  also  contem- 
porary with  him.  (ii. — iv.  8.) 

Part  111.  includes  the  prophecies  delivered  by  Micah 
during  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  king  of  Judah,  the  first  six 
years  of  whose  government  were  contemporary  witii  the 
greater  part  of  the  reign  of  Hoshea,  the  last  king  of  Israel, 
(iv.  9 — 13,  V. — vii.) 

Ciiap.  V.  contains  an  eminent  prediction  of  the  place 
of  the  Messiah's  Nativity,  as  well  as  of  his  kingdom  and 
conquests. 


Section  VII.— On  tlie  Book  of  the  Prophet  Nahum. 

BEFORE   CHRIST,  720—698. 

Nahum,  a  native  of  Elkosh,  or  Elkosha,  a  village  in 
Galilee,  is  generally  supposed  to  have  lived  between  the 
Assyrian  and  Babylonian  captivities,  about  715  years  be- 
fore the  Christian  a'ra.  The  repentance  of  the  Nincvites, 
in  consequence  of  Jonah's  j)reariiiiig,  being  of  short  dura- 
tion, Nahum  was  comniissi(»iie(l  to  denounce  the  final  and 
inevitable  ruin  of  Nineveh  and  the  Assyrian  <'inpire  by 
the  Chaldeans,  and  to  conifort  his  countrymen  in  tiie  cer- 
tainty of  tiieir  destruction 

His  prophecy  is  one  entire  poem,  which,  opening  with 
a  sublime  description  of  the  justice  and  power  of  God 
tempered  with  long-suflering,  (ch.  i.  1 — 8,)  foretells  the 


NEAR  TO  AND  DURING  THE  CAPTIVITY.  3()3 

destruction  of  Sennacherib's  forces,  and  the  subversion  of 
the  Assyrian  empire,  (9 — 12,)  together  with  the  deliver- 
ance of  Hezekiah  and  the  death  of  Sennaclierib.  (13 — 15.) 
The  destruction  of  Nineveh  is  then  predicted,  and  described 
with  singular  minuteness,  (ii.,  iii.) 


Section  VIII. — On  the  Book  of  the  ProphQt  Zephanian. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,   640 — 609 

This  prophet,  who  was  "  the  son  of  Cushi,  the  son  of 
Gedaliah,  the  son  of  Amariah,  the  son  of  Hizkiah,"  (i.  1,) 
is  supposed  to  have  discharged  the  prophetic  office  before 
the  eighteenth  year  of  Josiah  ;  that  is,  before  this  prince 
had  reformed  the  abuses  and  corruptions  of  his  dominions. 
His  prophecy,  which  consists  of  three  chapters,  may  be 
divided  into  four  sections  ;  viz. : 

Sect.  I.  A  denunciation  against  Judah  for  their  idola- 
try, (ch.  1.) 

Sect.  11.  Repentance  the  only  means  to  avert  the 
divine  vengeance,  (ch.  ii.  1 — 3.) 

Sect.  III.  Prophecies  against  the  Philistines,  (ch.  ii. 
4 — 7,)  Moabites  and  Ammonites,  (8 — 11,)  Ethiopia 
(12,)  and  Nineveh.  (13—15.)     In 

Sect.  IV.  The  captivity  of  the  Jews  by  the  Babylo- 
nians is  foretold,  (ch.  iii.  1 — 7.)  together  with  their  future 
restoration  and  the  ultimate  prosperous  state  of  the  church. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

OF  THE  PROPHETS  WHO  FLOURISHED  NEAR  TO  AND  DURING  THB  BABTLOMIAS 

CAPTIVITY. 

Section  I.— On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Jeremiah. 

BEFORE   CHRIST,    628 — 586. 

The  prophet  Jeremiah  was  of  the  sacerdotal  race,  being 
(as  he  himself  records)  one  of  the  priests  that  dwelt  at 
Anathoth,  (i.  1,)  in  the  land  of  Benjamin,  a  city  apprq^^ 


304  PROPHETS  WHO  FLOURISHED  NEAR  TO  AND 

priated  out  of  that  tribe  to  the  use  of  the  priests,  the  sons 
of  Aaron,  (Josh.  xxi.  18,)  and  situate,  as  we  learn  from 
Jerome,  about  three  Roman  miles  north  of  Jerusalem. 
He  appears  to  have  been  very  young  when  called  to  the 
prophetic  office,  in  tiie  discharge  of  which  he  received 
much  ill  treatment  from  the  Jews  :  he  prophesied  about 
forty-two  years,  and  followed  the  remnant  of  the  Jews  on 
tlieir  retiring  into  Egypt,  where  he  is  said  to  have  been 
put  to  death  by  his  profligate  countrymen.  His  predic- 
tions, which  are  levelled  against  the  crimes  of  the  Jews, 
are  not  arranged  in  the  chronological  order  in  which  they 
were  originally  delivered.  The  cause  of  their  transposi- 
tion it  is  now  impossible  to  ascertain.  The  late  Rev. 
Dr.  Blayney,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  a  learned 
version  of,  and  commentary  on,  the  writings  of  this  pro- 
phet, has  endeavoured,  with  great  judgment,  to  restore 
their  proper  order  by  transposing  the  chapters,  wherever 
it  appeared  to  be  necessary.  According  to  his  arrange- 
ment, the  predictions  of  Jeremiah  aie  to  be  placed  in  the 
following  order,  viz. : 

Section.  I.  The  prophecies  delivered  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah,  containing  chapters  i. — xii.  inclusive.  

Section  II.  The  prophecies  delivered  in  the  reign  of 
Jehoiakim,  comprising  chapters  xiii. — xx.,  xxii.,  xxiii., 
XXXV.,  xxxvi.,  xlv. — xlviii.,  and  xlix.  I — 33. 

Section  III.  The  prophecies  delivered  in  the  reign  of 
Zedekiah,  including  chapters  xxi.,  xxiv.,  xxvii. — xxxiv., 
xxxvii. — xxxix.  xlix.  34 — 39,  and  1.,  li. 

Section  IV.  The  prophecies  delivered  under  the  go- 
vernment of  Gedaliah,  from  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  to 
the  retreat  of  the  people  into  Egypt,  and  the  prophecies 
of  Jeremiah  delivered  to  the  Jews  in  that  country  ;  com- 
prehending chapters  xl. — xliv.  inclusive. 

In  ch.  xxiii.  5,  6,  is  foretold  the  mediatorial  kingdom 
of  the  Messiah,  who  is  called  the  Lord  our  Righteous- 
ness. Again,  in  Jcr.  xxxi.  31 — 30,  and  xxxiii.  8,  the 
efficacy  of  Christ's  atonement,  the  spiritual  character  of 
the  new  covenant,  and  the  inward  efl'icacy  of  the  Gospel, 
arc  most  clearly  and  emphatically  described.  Compare 
Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  ch.  viii.  8 — 13,  and 
X.  1(3,  ci  scq. 


DURING  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY.  305 


Skction  n.— On  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah. 

That  Jeremiah  was  the  author  of  the  Elegies  or  Lamen- 
tations which  bear  his  name  is  evident,  not  only 
from  a  very  ancient  and  almost  uninterrupted  tradition, 
but  also  from  the  argument  and  style  of  the  book,  which 
corresponds  exactly  with  those  of  his  prophecies.  This 
book  consists  of  five  chapters,  forming  as  many  pathetic 
elegies ;  in  the  four  first  of  which  the  prophet  bewails  the 
various  calamities  of  his  country  ;  the  fifth  elegy  is  an 
epilogue  to  the  four  preceding.  Dr.  BJayney  considers  it 
as  a  memorial  representing,  in  the  name  of  the  whole 
body  of  Jewish  exiles,  the  numerous  calamities  under 
which  they  groaned  ;  and  humbly  supplicating  God  to 
commiserate  their  wretchedness,  and  to  restore  them  to 
his  favour,  and  to  their  ancient  prosperity. 


Section  III.— On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Habakkuk. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,  612 — 598. 

Concerning  this  prophet  we  have  no  certain  informa- 
tion ;  he  exercised  the  prophetic  office,  most  probably,  in 
the  reign  of  Jehoiakim,  and  consequently  was  contempo- 
rary v/ith  Jeremiah.     His  book  consists  of  two  parts.     In 

Part  I.  wliich  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between 
God  and  the  prophet,  the  Babylonish  captivity  is  an- 
nounced ;  with  a  promise,  however,  of  deliverance,  and, 
the  ultimate  destruction  of  the  Babylonian  empire. 

Part  II.  contains  the  prayer  or  psalm  of  Habakkuk, 
in  which  he  implores  God  to  hasten  the  deliverance  of  his 
people,  (ii.) 


Section  IV.— On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Daniel. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,   606 — 534. 

Daniel,  the  fourth  of  the  greater  prophets,  if  not  of  royal 
birth,  (as  the  Jews  affirm,)  was  of  noble  descent,  and  was 
carried  captive  to  Babylon  at  an  early  age,  in  the  fourtb 
26* 


30g     PROPHETS  WHO  FLOURISHED  NEAR  TO  AND 

year  of  Jehoiachin  king  of  Judah,  in  the  year  606  before 
tlie  Christian  a?ra,  and  seven  years  before  the  deportation 
of  Ezekiel.  Havinj^  been  instructed  in  the  language  and 
literature  of  the  Chaldaeans,  he  afterwards  held  a  very 
distinijjuished  office  in  the  Babylonian  empire.  (Dan.  i. 
1 — 4.)  He  was  contemporary  with  Ezekiel,  who  men- 
tions iiis  extraordinary  piety  and  wisdom,  (Ezek.  xiv.  14, 
20,)  and  the  latter,  even  at  that  time,  seems  to  have  be- 
come proverbial.  (Ezek.  xxviii.  3.)  Daniel  lived  in 
great  credit  with  the  Babylonian  monarchs  ;  and  his  un- 
common merit  procured  him  the  same  regard  from  Darius 
and  Cyrus,  the  two  first  sovereigns  of  Persia.  He  lived 
throughout  the  captivity,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  he 
returned  to  his  own  country  when  Cyrus  permitted  the 
Jews  to  revisit  their  native  land.  The  time  of  his  death  is 
not  certainly  known.  Although  the  name  of  Daniel  is  not 
prefixed  to  his  book,  the  many  passages  in  which  he  speaks 
in  the  first  person  sufficiently  prove  that  he  was  the  author. 
His  writings  may  be  divided  into  two  parts  ;  viz.  : 

Part  I.  comprises  the  historical  portion  of  this  book: 
it  contains  a  narrative  of  the  circumstances  that  led  to 
Daniel's  elevation,  (eh.  i. — vi.) 

Part.  K.  comprises  various  prophecies  and  visions  of 
things  future,  until  the  advent  and  death  of  the  Messiah, 
and  the  ultimate  conversion  of  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  to 
the  faith  of  the  Gospel,  (ch.  vii. — xii.) 

This  is  an  amazing  series  of  prophecy,  extending  through 
many  successive  ages  from  the  first  establishment  of  the  Per- 
sian empire,  upwards  of  530  years  before  Christ,  to  the  ge- 
neral resurrection !  "  Whata  proof  does  it  aflford  of  a  Divine 
Providence,  and  of  a  Divine  Revelation!  for  who  could 
thus  declare  the  things  that  shall  be,  with  their  times  and 
seasons,  but  He  only  who  hath  them  in  his  power  :  whose 
dominion  is  over  all,  and  whose  kingdom  endureth  from 
generation  to  generation !" 


Skotion  v.— On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Obadiah. 

BEPORB  CHRIST,   688 — 583. 

The  time  when  this  prophet  flourished  is  uncertain  : 
Archbishop    Newcome  places  it,  with  great  probability, 


DURING  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY.  307 

between  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  (which  happened  in  the 
year  587  before  Christ)  and  the  destruction  of  Idumsea, 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  which  took  place  a  very  few  years 
after.  Consequently  he  was  partly  contemporary  with  Jere- 
miah, one  of  whose  predictions  includes  the  greater  part 
of  Obadiah's  book.  (Compare  Obad.  1 — 9,  with  Jer. 
xlix.  14, 15,  16.  7.  9,  10.)  His  writings,  which  consist  of 
only  one  chapter,  unfold  a  very  interesting  scene  of 
prophecy,  in  two  parts  ;  viz.  : 

Part  I.  is  minatory,  and  denounces  the  destruction  of 
Edom  for  their  pride  and  carnal  security,  (1 — 9,)  and  for 
their  cruel  insults  and  enmity  to  the  Jews,  after  the  cap- 
ture of  their  city.  (10 — 16.) 

Part  II.  is  consolatory,  and  foretells  the  restoration  of 
the  Jews,  (17,)  their  victory  over  their  enemies,  and  their 
flourishing  state  in  consequence.  (IS — 21.) 


Sbction  VI,— On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel. 

BEFORE    CHRIST,  595 — 536. 

Ezekiel,  wnose  name  imports  i\iQ  strength  of  God,  was 
the  son  of  Buzi,  of  the  sacerdotal  race,  and  one  of  the  cap- 
tives carried  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Babylon  with  Jehoiachin 
king  of  Judah  :  it  does  not  appear  that  he  had  prophesied 
before  he  came  into  Mesopotamia.  The  principal  scene 
of  his  predictions  was  some  place  on  the  river  Chebar, 
which  flows  into  the  Euphrates  about  two  hundred  miles 
to  the  north  of  Babylon,  where  the  prophet  resided  ;  though 
he  was,  occasionally,  conveyed  in  vision  to  Jerusalem. 
He  commenced  his  prophetic  ministry  in  the  thirtieth  year 
of  his  age,  according  to  general  accounts ;  or  rather,  as 
Calmet  thinks,  in  the  thirtieth  year  after  the  covenant  was 
renewed  with  God,  in  the  reign  of  Josiah,  which  answers 
to  the  fifth  year  of  Ezekiel's  and  Jehoiachin's  captivity, 
(Ezek.  i.  1,  xl.  1,)  the  sera  whence  he  dates  his  predictions; 
and  he  continued  to  prophesy  about  twenty  or  twenty-one 
years.  The  events  of  his  life,  after  his  call  to  the  pro- 
phetic office,  are  interwoven  with  the  detail  which  he  has 
himself  given  of  his  predictions :  but  the  manner  of  its 
termination  is  no  where  ascertained.  His  prophecies  have 
always  been  acknowledged  to  be  canonical,  nor  was  it  ever 


308  PROPHETS  WHO  FLOURISHED  AFTER  THE 

disputed  that  he  was  their  author :  they  form,  in  our  Bibles, 
forty-eight  chapters,  and,  as  he  is  extremely  punctual  ia 
dating  them,  we  have  little  or  no  difficulty  in  arranging 
them  in  chronological  order.  They  may  be  divided  into 
four  parts,  viz.  : 

Part  I.  Ezekiel's  call  to  the  Prophetic  office,  (ch.  i.  1, 
to  the  first  part  of  verse  28,)  his  commission,  instructions, 
and  encouragements  for  executing  it.  (i.  28,  latter  clause, 
ii.,  iii.  1— 21.) 

Part  II.  Denunciations  against  the  Jewish  People, 
(ch.  iii.  22—27,  iv.— xxiv.) 

Part  III.  comprises  Ezekiel's  Prophecies  against 
various  neighbouring  nations,  enemies  to  the  Jews.  (ch. 
XXV. — XXX  ii.) 

Part  IV.  contains  a  series  of  exhortations  and  conso- 
latory promises  to  the  Jews,  of  future  deliverance  under 
Cyrus,  but  principally  of  their  final  restoration  and  con- 
version under  the  kingdom  of  Messiah,  (ch.  xxxiii. — 
xlvi.) 


CHAPTER  VII. 

OP   THE   PROPHETS   WHO   FLOURISHED  AFTER   THB   RETURN   OF   THE  JEWS   FROM 
BABYI-ON. 

Section  I.— On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Haggai. 

BEFORE    CHRIST,  520—518. 

Nothing  is  certainly  known  concerning  the  tribe  or 
birth-place  of  Haggai,  \be  tenth  in  order  of  the  minor 
prophets,  but  the  first  of  the  three  who  were  commission- 
ed to  make  known  the  divine  will  lo  the  Jews  after  their 
return  from  captivity.  The  Jews  having  for  fourteen 
years  discontinued  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  this  pro- 
phet was  commissioned  to  encourage  them  in  their  work, 
in  consequence  of  the  edict  issued  by  Cyrus  in  their 
favour.  Accordingly  the  work  was  resumed,  and  com- 
pleted in  a  few  years.  His  prophecy  comprises  three  dis- 
tinct prophecies  or  discourses  ;  viz. : 

DtscotrRSK  I.  contains  n  severe  reproof  of  the  people,  esperlally  of  their 
goveriKM-  and  hiKli-prU-Kl,  for  their  dilay  in  rcbulliling  Uie  temple,  which 
neglect  woa  tlie  cause  of  the  unfruitful  seasons,  and  other  uiarki  of  the 


RETLUN  OF  THE  JEWS  FROM  BABYLON.  399 

divine  displeasure,  with  which  they  had  been  visited,  (i.  1 — II.)  The 
obedience  of  the  governors  and  people  to  the  prophet's  message  is  then 
related.  (12—15.) 

Discourse  II.  The  prophet  comforts  the  aged  men,  who,  when  young, 
had  beheld  the  splendour  of  the  first  temple,  and  now  wept  for  the  dimi- 
nished magnificence  of  the  second  temple,  by  foretelling  that  its  glory 
sliould  be  greater  than  that  of  the  first,  (ii.  1 — 2.)  This  prediction  was 
accomplished  by  Jesus  Christ  honouring  it  with  his  presence  and  preach- 
ing. Haggai  then  predicts  a  fruitful  harvest,  as  a  reward  for  carrying  on 
the  building.  (10—19.) 

Discourse  III.  The  prophet  foretells  the  setting  up  of  Messiah's  kingdom 
linder  the  name  of  Zerubbabel.  (ii.  20—23.) 


Section  II. — On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Zechariah. 

BEFORE   CHRIST,   520 — 518. 

Although  the  names  of  Zechariah's  father  and  grand- 
father are  specified,  (Zech.  i.  1,)  it  is  not  known  from 
what  tribe  or  family  this  prophet  was  descended,  nor 
where  he  was  born  ;  but  that  he  was  one  of  the  captives 
who  returned  to  Jerusalem  in  consequence  of  the  decree 
of  Cyrus,  is  unquestionable.  As  he  opened  his  prophetic 
commission  in  the  eighth  month  of  the  second  year  of 
Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  that  is,  about  the  year  520 
before  the  Christian  aera,  it  is  evident  that  he  was  con- 
temporary with  Haggai,  and  his  authority  was  equally 
effectual  in  promoting  the  building  of  the  temple. 

The  prophecy  of  Zechariah  consists  of  two  parts  ;  viz. : 

Part  I.  concerns  the  events  which  were  then  taking 
place,  viz. :  the  restoration  of  the  temple,  interspersing  pre- 
dictions relative  to  the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  (ch.  i. — vi.) 
These  predictions  were  delivered  in  the  second  year  of 
the  reign  of  Darius,  king  of  Persia. 

Part  II.  comprises  prophecies  relative  to  more  remote 
events,  particularly  the  coming  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the 
war  of  the  Romans  against  the  Jews.  (vii. — xiv.)  These 
prophecies  were  announced  in  the  fourth  year  of  Darius's 
reign. 


Section  m.— On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Malachl. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,  436 — 397. 

Malachi,  the  last  of  the  minor  prophets,  delivered  his 
predictions  while   Nehemiah   was   governor   of  Judaeoi 


310  ON  THE  APOCRYPHA. 

more  particularly  after  his  second  coming  from  the  Per- 
sian court :  and  he  appears  to  have  contributed  the  weight 
of  his  exhortations  to  the  restoration  of  the  Jewish  polity, 
and  the  final  reform  established  by  that  pious  and  excel- 
lent governor.  The  people  having  relapsed  into  irreligion, 
the  prophet  was  commissioned  to  reprove  both  priests  and 
people.  His  writings,  which  consist  of  four  chapters, 
comprise  two  prophetic  discourses  ;  viz.  : 

Discourse  I.  reproves  the  Jews  for  their  irreverence  to  God,  their  bene- 
factor, and  denounces  divine  judi^menls  against  them.  (ch.  i.,  ii.) 

Discourse  II.  foretells  the  coming  of  Christ,  and  his  harbinger,  John  the 
Baptist,  to  purify  the  sons  of  Levi,  the  priests,  and  to  smite  the  land  with 
a  curse,  unless  they  all  repented,  (iil.,  iv.) 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ON   THB  APOCRYPHA, 

Besides  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament,  which 
are  universally  acknowledged  to  be  genuine  and  inspired 
A\Titings,  both  by  the  Jewish  and  Christian  churches, 
there  are  several  other  writings,  partly  historical,  partly 
ethical,  and  partly  poetical,  which  are  usually  printed  at 
the  end  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  larger  editions  of  the 
English  Bible, under  the  appellation  of  the  "apocrypha;" 
that  is,  books  not  admitted  into  the  sacred  canon,  being 
either  spurious,  or  at  least  not  acknowledged  to  be  divine. 
These  books  are  deservedly  rejected  by  all  Protestants 
from  the  canon  of  Scripture,  because  they  never  were  re- 
cognised as  canonical  by  the  Jewish  orChristian  churches; 
because  they  contain  many  things  which  are  fabulous  and 
contradictory  to  historical  truth,  as  well  as  to  the  canoni- 
cal Scriptures  ;  and  also  because  they  contain  passages 
which  are  false,  absurd,  and  incredible.  These  human 
productions  were  first  enrolled  among  the  divinely  in- 
spired writings  by  the  assembly  of  popish  prelates  and 
others,  who  were  convened  in  what  is  called  the  council 
of  Trent. 

I.  The  rinsT  book  of  Esdras  is  only  extant  in  Greek, 
and  is  so  called  because  the  events  related  in  it  occurred 
before  the  Babylonian  captivity.  It  is  chiefly  historical, 
and  gives  an  account  of  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 


ON  THE  APOCRYPHA.  311 

the  Babylonish  captivity,  the  building  of  the  temple,  and 
the  re-establishment  of  divine  worship. 

II.  The  SECOND  BOOK  OF  EsDRAS  is  supposcd  to  have 
been  originally  written  in  Greek,  though  at  present  it  is 
only  extant  in  Latin,  of  which  there  is  an  Arabic  version, 
differing  very  materially  from  it,  and  having  many  interpo- 
lations. The  author  of  this  book  is  unknown  ;  but  the 
allusions  to  Jesus  Christ,  and  to  the  phraseology  of  the 
New  Testament,  prove  it  to  be  the  composition  of  some 
Jewish  Christian.  It  abounds  with  absurd  rabbinical  tales 
and  fables. 

III.  Concerning  the  author  of  the  book  of  Tobit,  or 
the  time  when  he  flourished,  we  have  no  authentic  infor- 
mation. It  professes  to  relate  the  history  of  Tobit  and 
his  family,  who  were  carried  into  captivity  to  Nineveh 
by  Shalmanezer :  but  it  contains  so  many  rabbinical 
fables,  and  allusions  to  the  Babylonian  demonology,  that 
many  learned  men  consider  it  as  an  ingenious  and  amusing 
fiction,  calculated  to  form  a  pious  temper,  and  to  teach  the 
most  important  duties.  The  simplicity  of  its  narrative 
and  the  pious  and  moral  lessons  it  inculcates,  have  impart- 
ed to  it  an  interest,  which  has  rendered  it  one  of  the  most 
popular  of  the  apocryphal  writings. 

IV.  The  BOOK  OP  Judith  professes  to  relate  the  defeat 
of  the  Assyrians  by  the  Jews,  through  the  instrumentality 
of  their  countrywoman  Judith,  whose  genealogy  is  recorded 
in  the  eighth  chapter  ;  but  so  many  geograpiiical,  histori- 
cal, and  chronological  difficulties  attend  this  book,  that  the 
most  eminent  critics  have  considered  it  rather  as  a  drama, 
or  parable,  than  a  real  history.  Ti?e  author  is  utterly  un- 
known. This  book  was  originally  written  in  Chaldee,  and 
translated  into  Latin. 

V.  "  The  rest  of  the  chapters  of  the  book  of 
Esther,  which  are  found  neither  in  the  Hebrew  nor  in 
the  Chaldee,"  were  originally  written  in  Greek,  whence 
they  were  translated  into  Latin,  and  formed  part  of  the 
Italic  or  old  Latin  version  in  use  before  the  time  of  Je- 
rome. Being  there  annexed  to  the  canonical  book,  they 
passed  without  censure,  but  were  rejected  by  Jerome  in 
his  version,  because  he  confined  himself  to  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  and  these  chapters  never  were  extant  in  the 
Hebrew  language.     They   are  evidently  the  production 


312  ON  THE  APOCRYPHA. 

of  an  Hellenistic  Jew,  but  are  considered  both  by  Jerome 
atid  Grotius  as  a  work  of  pure  fiction,  which  was  annexed 
to  the  canonical  book  of  Esther  by  way  of  embellishment. 

VI.  "  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon"  is  commonly  ascribed 
to  that  Hebrew  monarch,  either  because  the  author  imita- 
ted his  sententious  manner  of  writing,  or  because  he 
sometimes  speaks  in  his  name,  the  better  to  recommend 
his  moral  precepts.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  Solomon 
was  not  the  author,  for  it  was  never  extant  in  Hebrew, 
nor  received  into  the  Hebrew  canon,  nor  is  the  style  like 
that  of  Solomon.  This  book  has  always  been  admired 
for  its  elegance  and  for  the  admirable  moral  tendency  of 
its  precepts.  It  consists  of  two  parts  :  the  first  contains  a 
description  or  encomium  of  wisdom,  (ch.  i. — x.)  The 
second  part,  comprising  the  rest  of  the  book,  treats  on  a 
variety  of  topics  widely  differing  from  the  subject  of  the 
first ;  viz.  :  reflections  on  the  history  and  conduct  of  the 
Israelites  during  their  journeyings  in  the  wilderness,  and 

neir  subsequent  proneness  to  idolatry. 

VII.  Although  the  "  Wisdom  of  Jesus,  the  son  of 
SiRACH,"  or  EccLEsiASTicus,  has  sometimes  been  con 
sidered  as  the  production  of  Solomon,  yet  the  style  and 
other  internal  evidences  prove  that  it  could  not  possibly 
have  been  written  by  the  Hebrew  monarch.  Respecting 
the  author  of  Ecclesiasticus  we  have  no  information  be- 
yond what  this  book  itself  imparts  ;  viz.:  that  it  was  writ- 
ten by  a  person  of  the  name  of  Jesus,  the  son  of  Sirach, 
who  had  travelled  in  pursuit  of  knowledg:e.  This  man, 
being  deeply  conversant  with  the  Old  Testament,  and 
having  collected  many  things  from  the  prophets,  blended 
them,  as  well  as  the  sentences  ascribed  to  Solomon,  with 
the  result  of  his  own  observation,  and  thus  endeavoured 
to  produce  a  work  of  instruction  that  might  be  useful  to 
his  countrymen.  This  book  was  written  in  Hebrew,  oi 
rather  the  Syro-Ciialdaic  dialect,  then  in  use  in  Judasa, 
and  was  translated  by  his  grandson  into  Greek,  for  the 
use  of  the  Alexandrian  Jews,  who  were  ignorant  of  the 
language  of  Jud;ea.  The  translator  himself  is  supposed 
to  have  been  a  son  of  Sirach,  as  well  as  his  grandfather, 
the  author.  The  book  was  probably  written  about  the 
year  232  h.  c,  when  the  author  might  be  seventy  years 
of  age ;  and  it  was  translated  about  sixty  years  after. 


ON  THE  APOCRYPHA.  313 

This  book  has  met  with  general  and  deserved  esteem 
in  the  Western  church,  and  was  introduced  into  the  public 
service  by  the  venerable  reformers  and  compilers  of  our 
national  liturgy 

It  commences  with  an  exhortation  to  the  pursuit  of 
wisdom :  this  is  followed  by  numerous  moral  sentences  or 
maxims,  arranged  in  a  less  desultory  manner  than  the  pro- 
verbs of  Solomon,  as  far  as  the  forty-fourth  chapter,  at 
which  the  author  begins  his  eulogy  of  the  patriarchs,  pro- 
phets, and  celebrated  men  anjong  the  Jews,  to  the  end  of 
the  fiftieth  chapter.     And  the  book  concludes  with  a  prayer. 

VIII.  It  is  alike  uncertain  by  whom,  or  in  what  lan- 
guage, the  BOOK  OF  Baruch  was  written  ;  and  whether 
it  contains  any  matters  historically  true,  or  whether  the 
whole  is  a  fiction.  The  principal  subject  of  the  book  is 
an  epistle,  pretended  to  be  sent  by  Jehoiakim  and  the  cap- 
tive Jews  in  Babylon,  to  their  brethren  in  Judah  and 
Jerusalem.  The  last  chapter  contains  an  epistle  which 
falsely  bears  the  name  of  Jeremiah. 

IX.  "  The  song  of  the  three  children"  is  placed 
in  the  Greek  version  of  Daniel,  and  also  in  the  Vulgate 
Latin  version,  between  the  twenty-third  and  twenty-fourth 
verses  of  the  third  chapter.  It  does  not  appear  to  have 
ever  been  extant  in  Hebrew,  and  although  it  has  always 
been  admired  for  the  piety  of  hs  sentiments,  it  was  never 
admitted  to  be  canonical,  until  it  was  recognised  by  the 
council  of  Trent. 

X.  The  history  of  Susanna  is  evidently  the  work  of 
some  Hellenistic  Jew  :  and  in  the  Vulgate  version  it  forms 
the  thirteenth  chapter  of  the  book  of  Daniel.  Some 
modern  critics  consider  it  to  be  both  spurious  and  fabulous. 

XI.  "  The  History  of  the  Destruction  of  Bel  AxND  the 
Dragon"  was  always  rejected  by  the  Jewish  church  ;  it  is 
not  extant  either  in  the  Hebrew  or  the  Chaldee  language. 
Jerome  gives  it  no  better  title  than  that  of  the  Fable  of 
Bel  and  the  Dragon;  nor  has  it  obtained  more  credit 
with  posterity,  except  with  the  Romish  clergy  present  at 
the  council  of  Trent,  who  determined  it  to  be  a  part  of 
the  canonical  Scriptures.  The  design  of  this  fiction  is  to 
render  idolatry  ridiculous,  and  to  exalt  the  true  God  ;  but 
the   author  has  destroyed  the  illusion  of  his  fiction  by 

27 


314  ON  THE  APOCRYPHA. 

transporting  to  Babylon  the  worship  of  animals,  which  was 
never  practised  in  that  country. 

XII.  "The  Prayer  of  Manasses,  king  of  Judah, 
when  he  was  holden  captive  in  Babylon,"  though  not  un- 
worthy of  the  occasion  on  which  it  is  pretended  to  have 
been  composed,  was  never  recognised  as  canonical.  It  is 
rejected  as  spurious  even  by  the  church  of  Rome. 

XIII.  The  two  books  of  Maccabees  are  thus  denomi- 
nated, because  they  relate  to  the  patriotic  and  gallant  ex- 
ploits of  Judas  Maccabeus  and  his  brethren  :  they  are 
both  admitted  into  the  canon  of  Scripture  by  the  church 
of  Rome. 

1.  The  FIRST  BOOK  contains  the  history  of  the  Jews, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
to  the  death  of  Simon,  a  period  of  about  thirty-four  years. 
It  was  originally  written  in  the  Syro-Chaldaic  language, 
and  was  most  probably  composed  in  the  time  of  John 
Hyrcanus,  when  the  wars  of  the  Maccabees  were  termi- 
nated, either  by  Hyrcanus  himself,  or  by  some  persons 
employed  by  him.  From  the  Syro-Chaldaic  it  was  trans- 
lated into  Greek,  and  thence  into  Latin.  Our  English 
version  is  made  from  the  Greek.  The  first  book  of  Mac- 
cabees is  a  most  valuable  historical  monument. 

2.  The  SECOND  book  of  Maccabees  is  very  inferior  to 
the  preceding,  and  consists  of  several  pieces  compiled  by 
an  unknown  author ;  it  must  therefore  be  read  with  great 
caution.  It  contains  the  history  of  about  fifteen  years, 
from  the  execution  of  the  commission  of  Heliodorus,  who 
was  sent  by  Scleucus  to  bring  away  the  treasures  of 
the  Temple,  to  the  victory  obtained  hy  Judas  Maccabeus 
.over  Nicanor,  that  is,  from  the  year  of  the  world  3828  to 
3843.  Two  ancient  translations  of  this  hook  are  extant, 
one  in  Syriac,  the  other  in  Latin :  the  version  in  our 
Bibles  was  executed  from  the  Greek. 


315 


BOOK  II.— ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


CHAPTER  II. 


ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS  OP  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 
Section  I. — On  the  Name  and  Number  of  the  Canonical  Gospel. 

The  word  EYANFEAION,  (Euangelion,)  which  we 
translate  Gospel,  among  Greek  profane  writers  signifies 
any  good  tidings,*  and  corresponds  exactly  with  our 
English  word  Gospel,  which  is  derived  from  the  Saxon 
words  30b,  God  or  good,  and  rpei,  word  or  tiding,  and 
denotes  God's  word  or  good  tidings.  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment this  term  is  confined  to  the  glad  tidings  of  the  actual 
coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  is  even  opposed  to  the  pro- 
phecies concerning  Christ.  (Matt.  xi.  5,  Rom.  i.  1,  2.) 
Hence  Ecclesiastical  writers  gave  the  appellation  of  Gos- 
pels to  tiie  lives  of  Christ — that  is,  to  those  sacred  histo- 
ries in  which  are  recorded  the  "  good  tidings  of  great  joy 
to  all  people,"  of  the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  together 
with  all  its  joyful  circumstances :  and  hence  the  authors 
of  those  histories  have  acquired  the  title  of  evangelists. 
Besides  this  general  title,  the  sacred  writers  use  the  term 
Gospel,  with  a  variety  of  epithets,  derived  from  the  nature 
of  its  contents.  See  instances  in  Eph.  i.  13,  vi.  15,  Rom. 
i.  1.  3,  and  2  Cor.  v.  19. 

The  Gospels  which  have  been  transmitted  to  us  are  four 
in  number  :  and  we  learn  from  ecclesiastical  history,  that 
four,  and  four  only,  were  ever  received  by  the  Christian 
church  as  the  genuine  and  inspired  writings  of  the  evan- 
gelists. And  it  is  a  considerable  advantage,  that  a  history, 
of  such  importance  as  that  of  Jesus  Christ,  has  been  re- 
corded by  the  pens  of  separate  and  independent  writers  ; 
for,  by  the  contradictions,  whether  real  or  apparent,  which 
are  visible  in  these  accounts,  (but  which  admit  of  easy 

*  From  £v  (et*)  good,  and  avyc\ia  (angelia)  a  message  or  tidings. 


310  ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS 

solution  by  any  attentive  reader,)  tliey  have  incontestably 
proved  that  they  did  not  unite  with  a  view  of  imposing  a 
fabulous  narrative  on  mankind.  And  in  all  matters  of 
consequence,  whether  doctrinal  or  historical,  there  is  such 
a  manifest  agreement  between  them  as  is  to  be  found  in  no 
other  writings  whatever. 


Section  II,— On  the  Gospel  by  Saint  Matthew. 

Matthew,  surnamed  Levi,  was  the  son  of  Alpheus,  but 
not  of  that  Alpheus,  or  Cleopas,  who  was  the  father  of 
James,  mentioned  in  Matt.  x.  3.  He  was  a  native  of  Gali- 
lee, but  of  what  city  in  that  country,  or  of  what  tribe  of 
the  people  of  Israel,  we  are  not  informed.  Before  his 
conversion  to  Christianity,  he  was  a  publican  or  tax-ga- 
'therer,  under  the  Romans,  and  collected  the  customs  of  all 
goods  exported  or  imported  at  Capernaum,  a  maritime 
town  on  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  also  received  the  tribute 
paid  by  all  passengers  who  went  by  water.  While  em- 
ployed "  at  the  receipt  of  custom,"  Jesus  called  him  to  be 
a  witness  of  his  words  and  works,  thus  conferring  upon 
him  the  honourable  office  of  an  apostle.  From  that  time 
he  continued  with  Jesus  Christ,  a  familiar  attendant  on 
his  person,  a  spectator  of  his  public  and  private  conduct, 
a  hearer  of  his  discourses,  a  witness  of  his  miracles,  and 
an  evidence  of  his  resurrection.  After  our  Saviour's  as- 
cension, Matthew  continued  at  Jerusalem  with  the  other 
apostles,  and  with  them,  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  was 
endued  with  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Of  how  long  he 
remained  in  Judaea  after  that  event,  or  of  where  he  died, 
we  have  no  authentic  accounts.  He  is  generally  allowed 
to  have  written  first  of  all  the  evangelists,  though  a  consi- 
derable difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  language  in 
which  and  the  time  when  his  Gospel  was  composed. 
Some  critics  think  that  its  original  language  was  Hebrew; 
others,  Greek  ;  while  a  third  class  decide  in  favour  of  a 
Hebrew  and  Greek  original.  The  reasons  on  which  these 
several  opinions  are  founded  are  detailed  in  the  author's 
larger  Introduction,  which  do  not  admit  of  abridgment, 
the  most  probable  is  that,  which  determines  that  Matthew 
wrote  a  Hebrew  Gospel  for  the  Hebrew  Chrii^lians,  about 


OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  317 

the  year  37,  and  afterwards  a  Greek  Gospel,  about  the 
year  61.  The  present  Greek  Gospel  has  every  internal 
mark  of  being  an  original  writing  :  and  the  disappearance 
of  the  Hebrew  Gospel  is  sufficiently  actounled  for,  not 
only  by  the  prevalence  of  the  Greek  language,  but  also 
by  the  fact  that  it  was  so  corrupted  by  the  Ebionites  (a 
sect  contemporary  with  St.  John,)  as  to  lose  all  its  au- 
thority in  the  church.  The  authenticity  of  his  Gospel 
was  never  doubted. 

The  voice  of  antiquity  accords  in  testifying  that  St. 
Matthew  wrote  his  Gospel  in  Judaea  for  the  Jewish  nation 
while  the  church  consisted  wholly  of  the  circumcision, 
that  is,  of  Jewish  and  Samaritan  believers,  but  principally 
Jewish  :  and  that  he  wrote  it  primarily  for  their  use,  with 
a  view  to  confirm  those  who  believed,  and  to  convert 
those  who  believed  not,  we  have,  besides  historical  facts, 
very  strong  presumptions  from  the  book  itself.  Every  cir- 
cumstance is  carefully  pointed  out,  which  might  concili- 
ate the  faith  of  that  nation  ;  and  every  unnecessary  ex- 
pression is  avoided,  that  might  in  any  way  tend  to  obstruct 
it.  The  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  consists  of  four  parts; 
viz. : 

Part  I.  treats  on  the  Infancy  of  Jesus  Christ,  (ch.  i.,  ii.) 
Part  II.  records  the  Discourses  and  Actions  of  John 
the  Baptist  and  of  Jesus  Christ,  preparatory  to  our  Sa- 
viour's commencing   his  public  ministry,  (ch.  iii.  iv.  1 

-11.) 

Part  IIL  relates  the  Discourses  and  Actions  of  Christ 
in  Galilee,  by  which  he  demonstrated  that  he  was  the 
Messiah,  (ch.  iv.  12. — xx.  16.) 

Part  IV.  contains  the  Transactions  relative  to  the  pas- 
sion and  resurrection  of  Christ,  (ch.  xx.  17, — xxviii.) 


Section  III.— On  the  Gospel  by  Saint  Mark. 

This  evangelist,  whose  Hebrew  name  was  John,  was 
nephew  to  Barnabas,  (Col.  iv.  10,)  and  the  son  of  Mary,  a 
pious  woman  in  Jerusalem,  at  whose  house  the  apostles 
and  first  Christians  often  assembled.  (Acts  xii.  12.)  He 
is  supposed  to  have  adopted  the  surname  of  Mark,  when, 
he  left  Judsea  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  foreign  countries. 
27* 


318  ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 

The  consent  of  antiquity  attests  that  he  wrote  his  Gospel 
in  Greek,  under  the  inspection  of  the  apostle  Peter,  at 
Rome,  and  between  the  years  60  and  63.  It  may  be  divi- 
ded into  three  parts  ;  viz. : 

Part  I.  The  Transactions  from  the  Baptism  of  Christ 
to  his  entering  on  the  more  public  part  of  his  Ministry, 
(ch.  i.  1—13.) 

Part  II.  The  Discourses  and  Actions  of  Jesus  Christ 
to  his  going  up  to  Jerusalem  to  the  fourth  and  last  Pass- 
over, (ch.  i.  14, — X.) 

Part  III.  The  Passion,  Death,  and  Resurrection  of 
Christ,  (ch.  xi. — xiv.) 


Section  rv.— On  the  Gospel  by  Saint  Luke. 

St.  Luke  was  descended  from  Gentile  parents,  and  in 
his  youth  had  embraced  Judaism,  from  which  he  was 
converted  to  Christianity.  He  was  for  the  most  part  the 
companion  of  the  apostle  Paul :  and  as  no  ancient  writer 
has  mentioned  his  suffering  martyrdom,  it  is  probable 
that  he  died  a  natural  death.  The  genuineness  and  au- 
thenticity of  his  Gospel  and  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
were  never  doubted.  The  Gospel  appears  to  have  been 
written  about  the  year  63  or  64:  it  was  written  for  Gen- 
tile Christians,  and  the  events  which  he  has  recorded  are 
classed,  after  the  manner  of  some  ancient  profane  writers, 
instead  of  being  disposed  in  chronological  order,  as  St. 
Matthew  has  related  them.  The  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  may 
be  divided  into  five  classes  or  sections  ;  viz.  : 

Class  I.  contains  the  narrative  of  the  birth  of  Christ, 
together  with  all  the  circumstances  that  preceded,  attended, 
and  followed  it.  (ch.  i.  ii.  1 — 40.) 

Class  II.  comprises  the  particulars  relative  to  our  Sa- 
viour's infancy  and  youth,  (ch.  ii.  41 — 52.) 

Class  III.  includes  the  preaching  of  John,  and  the 
baptism  of  Jesus  Christ,  whose  genealogy  is  annexed, 
(ch.  iii.)  .      ,  J 

Class  IV.  comprehends  the  discourses,  miracles,  and 
actions  of  Jes\ir  Christ  during  the  whole  of  his  ministry, 
(ch.  iv. — ix.  50.)  This  appears  evident ;  for,  after  Saint 
Luke  had  related  his  temptation  io  the  wilderness,  (ch.  iv. 


OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT,  31^ 

1 — 13,)  he  immediately  adds,  that  Christ  returned  to  Gali- 
lee. (14,)  and  mentions  Nazareth,  (16,)  Capernaum,  (31,) 
and  the  lake  of  Gennesareth  ;  (v.  1 ;)  and  then  he  proceeds 
as  far  as  ix.  50,  to  relate  our  Saviour's  transactions  in 
Galilee. 

Class  V.  begins  with  chap.  ix.  51,  and  contains  an  ac- 
count of  our  Saviour's  last  journey  to  Jerusalem.  Con- 
sequently, this  class  comprises  every  thing  relative  to 
his  passion,  death,  resurrection,  and  ascension,  (ix.  51 — 
62,  X. — xxiv.) 


Section  V. — On  the  Gospel  by  Saint  John. 

Saint  John,  the  evangelist  and  apostle,  was  the  son  of 
Zebedee,  a  fisherman  of  the  town  of  Bethsaida,  on  the 
sea  of  Galilee,  and  the  younger  brother  of  James  the 
elder.  His  mother's  name  was  Salome.  He  was  emi- 
nently the  object  of  our  Lord's  regard  and  confidence ; 
and  was,  on  various  occasions,  admitted  to  free  and  inti- 
mate intercourse  with  him,  so  that  he  was  characterized  as 
"  the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved."  (John  xiii.  23.)  Hence 
we  find  him  present  at  several  scenes,  to  which  most  of  the 
other  disciples  were  not  admitted.  He  died  a  natural 
death  about  the  year  100.  He  wrote  his  Gospel  in  Greek, 
most  probably  about  the  year  97 :  it  has  been  universally 
received  as  genuine :  indeed,  besides  the  uninterrupted 
testimony  of  Christian  antiquity,  the  circumstantiality  of 
its  details  prove  that  his  book  was  written  by  an  eye- 
witness of  the  transactions  it  records. 

The  general  design  of  Saint  John,  in  common  with  the 
rest  of  the  evangelists,  is,  as  he  himself  assures  us,  to  prove 
that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah,  the  Son  of  God,  and  that  be- 
lieving, we  may  have  life  through  his  name.  (xx.  31.)  But, 
besides  this,  we  are  informed  by  ancient  writers,  that  there 
were  two  especial  motives  that  induced  Saint  John  to  com- 
pose his  Gospel.  One  was,  to  supply  those  important 
events  in  our  Saviour's  life  which  had  been  omitted  by  the 
other  evangelists  ;  the  other  motive  was,  that  he  might  re- 
fute the  heresies  of  Cerinthus  and  the  Nicolaitans,  who 
had  attempted  to  corrupt  the  Christian  doctrine.  Of  the 
Nicolaitans  nothing  certain  is  known :   but,  concerning 


320  ^^  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS 

the  tenets  of  the  Corinthians,  the  following  particulars 
(taken  from  the  author's  larger  Introduction)  are  neces- 
sary to  be  known  in  order  to  understand  the  design  of  the 
evangelist  in  composing  his  Gospel. 

Cerinthus  was  by  birth  a  Jew,  who  lived  at  the  close  of 
the  first  century  :  having  studied  literature  and  philosophy 
at  Alexandria,  he  attempted,  at  length,  to  form  a  new  and 
singular  system  of  doctrine  and  discipline,  by  a  monstrous 
combination  of  the  doctrines  of  Jesus  Christ,  with  the 
opinions  and  errors  of  the  Jews  and  Gnostics.  From  the  latter 
he  borrowed  their  Pleroma,  or  fulness,  their  ^ons,  or  spi- 
rits, their  Demiurgus,  or  creator  of  the  visible  world,  &-c.  and 
so  modified  and  tempered  these  fictions  as  to  give  them  an 
air  of  Judaism,  which  must  have  considerably  favoured 
the  progress  of  his  heresy.  He  taught,  that  the  most  high 
God  was  utterly  unknown  before  the  appearance  of  Christ, 
and  dwelt  in  a  remote  heaven  called  nAHP£>MA  (Pleruma) 
with  the  chief  spirits,  or  aeons.  That  this  supreme  God 
first  generated  an  only  begotten  son,  MONOrEMIS  (J/o- 
jwgenes^  who  acjain  begat  tlie  word,  AOrOS  [Logos,) 
which  was  inferior  to  the  first-born.  Tbat  Christ  was  a 
still  lower  a?on,  though  far  superior  to  some  others.  That 
there  were  two  higher  aeons,  distinct  from  Christ  ;  one 
called  ZS2H(Z«7e,)  or  life,  and  the  other  ^9X  (Fhos,)  or 
the  LIGHT.  That  from  the  aeons  again  proceeded  inferior 
orders  of  spirits,  and  particularly  one  Dcmiurgus,  who 
created  this  visible  world  out  of  eternal  matter.  That 
this  Demiurgus  was  ignorant  of  the  supreme  God,  and 
much  lower  than  the  aeons,  which  were  wholly  invisible. 
That  he  was,  however,  the  peculiar  God  and  protector  of 
the  Israelites,  and  sent  Moses  to  them,  whose  laws  were  to 
be  of  perpetual  obligation.  That  Jesus  was  a  mere  man, 
of  the  most  illustrious  sanctity  and  justice,  the  real  son  of 
Joseph  and  Mary.  That  the  spon  Christ  descended  upon 
him  in  the  form  of  a  dove,  when  he  was  baptized,  re- 
vealed to  him  the  unknown  Father,  and  empowered  him 
to  work  miracles.  That  the  aeon  light  entered  John  the 
Baptist  in  the  same  manner,  and,  therefore,  that  John  was 
in  some  respects  })referable  to  Christ.  That  Jesus,  after 
his  union  with  Christ,  opposed  himself  with  vigour  to  the 
God  of  the  Jews,  at  whoso  instigation  he  was  seized  and 
crucified  bv  the  Hebrew  chiefs,  and  that  when  Jesus  was 


OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  321 

taken  captive,  and  came  to  suffer,  Christ  ascended  up  on 
high,  so  that  the  man  Jesus  alone  was  subjected  to  the 
pains  of  an  ignominious  death.  That  Christ  will  one  day 
return  upon  earth,  and  renewing  his  former  union  with  the 
man  Jesus,  will  reign  in  Palestine  a  thousand  years,  during 
which  his  disciples  will  enjoy  the  most  exquisite  sensual 
delights 

Bearing  these  dogmas  in  mind,  we  shall  find  that  Saint 
John's  Gospel  is  divided  into  three  parts,  viz. 

Part  I.  contains  doctrines  laid  down  in  opposition  to 
those  of  Cerinthus.  (John  i.  1 — 18.) 

Part  TI.  delivers  the  proofs  of  those  doctrines  in  a 
historical  manner,  (i.  19, — xx.  29. 

Part  III.  is  a  conclusion,  or  appendix,  giving  an  ac- 
count of  the  person  of  the  writer,  and  of  his  design  in 
^Titing  his  Gospel,  (xx.  30,  31,  xxi.) 


Section  VL — On  the  Acts  of  the  ApostlesL 

The  Book  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  forms  the  fifth 
and  last  of  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
and  connects  the  Gospels  with  the  Epistles  ;  being  a 
useful  postscript  to  the  former,  and  a  proper  introduction 
to  the  latter.  That  Saint  Luke  was  the  author  of  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  is  evident,  both  from  the  introduction,  and 
from  the  unanimous  testimonies  of  the  early  Christians. 
The  Gospel  and  the  Book  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
are  both  inscribed  to  Theophilus  :  and  in  the  very  first 
verse  of  the  Acts  there  is  a  reference  made  to  his  Gospel, 
which  he  coWs '^  the  former  Treatise."  On  this  account 
Dr.  Benson  and  some  other  critics  have  conjectured  that 
Saint  Luke  wrote  the  Gospel  and  Acts  in  one  book,  and 
divided  it  into  two  parts.  From  the  frequent  use  of  the 
first  person  plural,  it  is  clear  that  he  was  present  at  most 
of  the  transactions  he  relates.  To  the  genuineness  and 
authenticity  of  this  book,  which  was  written  about  the 
year  63,  all  the  Christian  Fathers  bear  unanimous  testi- 
mony. 

The  acts  of  the  apostles  may  be  divided  into  three  prin- 
cipal parts ;  viz. ; 


322  ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS 

Part  I.  contains  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  mother 
church  at  Jerusalem,  from  the  time  of  our  Saviour's 
ascension  to  the   first  Jewish  persecution,  (ch.  i. — viii.) 

Part  II.  comprises  the  Dispersion  of  the  Disciples — the 
propagation  of  Christianity  among  the  Samaritans — the 
conversion  of  Saint  Paul,  and  the  foundation  of  a  Chris- 
tian church  at  Antioch.  (ch.  viii.  5,  xii.) 

Part  III.  describes  the  conversion  of  the  more  remote 
Gentiles,  by  Barnabas  and  Paul,  and,  after  their  separation, 
by  Paul  and  his  associates,  among  whom  was  Luke  him- 
self during  the  latter  part  of  Paul's  labours,  (ch.  xiji. — 
xxviii.) 

The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  afford  abundant  evidence  of 
the  truth  and  divine  original  of  the  Christian  religion  ; 
for  we  learn  from  this  book,  that  the  Gospel  was  not  in- 
debted for  its  success  to  deceit  or  fraud  ;  but  it  was  wholly 
the  result  of  the  mighty  power  of  God,  and  of  the  excel- 
lence and  efficacy  of  the  saving  truths  which  it  contains. 
The  general  and  particular  doctrines  comprised  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  are  perfectly  in  unison  with  the 
glorious  truths  revealed  in  the  Gospels,  and  illustrated  in 
the  apostolic  Epistles  ;  and  are  admirably  suited  to  the 
state  of  the  persons,  whether  Jews  or  Gentiles,  to  whom 
they  were  addressed.  And  the  evidences  which  the 
apostles  gave  of  their  doctrine,  in  their  appeals  to  pro- 
phecies and  miracles,  and  the  various  gifts  of  the  Spirit, 
were  so  numerous  and  so  strong,  and  at  the  same  time  so 
widely  adapted  to  every  class  of  persons,  that  the  truth  of 
the  religion  which  they  attest  cannot  be  reasonably  disputed. 

In  perusing  this  very  interesting  portion  of  sacred  his- 
tory, it  will  be  desirable  constantly  to  refer  to  the  accom- 
panying map  of  the  Travels  of  the  Apostles,  particularly 
those  of  Saint  Paul. 


% 


ON  THE  EPISTOLARY  WRITINGS.  323 


CHAPTER  II. 


on  TH£  EPISTOLAHT    OR  DOCTRINAL  WRITINGS    OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT,    PAS* 
TICULARLY  THOSE    OF    SAINT   PAUL. 


Section  I.— A  Brief  Account  of  the  Apostle  Paul.— Nature  of  the  Epistolarly 
Writings  of  the  New  Testament. 

I.  A  Brief  Account  of  Saint  Paul. 

Saul,  also  called  Paul,  (by  which  name  this  illustrious 
apostle  was  generally  known  after  his  preaching  among 
the  Gentiles,  especially  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,) 
was  a  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,  a  descendant  of  the  patri- 
arch Abraham,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  a  native  of 
Tarsus,  then  the  chief  city  of  Cilicia.  By  birth  he  was  a 
citizen  of  Rome,  a  distinguished  honour  and  privilege, 
which  had  been  conferred  on  some  of  his  ancestors  for 
services  rendered  to  the  commonwealth  during  the  wars. 
His  father  was  a  Pharisee,  and  he  himself  was  educated 
in  the  most  rigid  principles  of  that  sect ;  but  he  was  also 
early  initiated  into  Greek  literature  at  Tarsus:  and  his 
parents  completed  his  education  by  having  him  taught  the 
art  of  tent-making,  in  conformity  with  the  custom  of  the 
Jews  at  that  time.  It  appears  from  Acts  xxiii.  16 — 22, 
and  Rom.  xvi.  7.  11.  21,  that  his  sister's  son  and  some 
others  of  his  relations  were  Christians,  and  had  embraced 
the  Gospel  before  his  conversion  ;  but  Saul  himself  was 
an  inveterate  enemy  of  the  Christian  name  and  faith,  until 
his  conversion  in  a.d.  35,  on  the  road  to  Damascus 
whither  he  was  going  with  letters  of  commission  from  the 
high  priest  and  elders,  or  sanhedrin,  to  the  synagogue 
of  the  Jews  at  Damascus,  empowering  him  to  bring  to 
Jerusalem  any  Christians,  whether  men  or  women,  whom 
he  might  find  there. 

Shortly  after  his  baptism,  and  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  upon  him,  Saul  went  into  Arabia  ;  (Gal.  i.  17  ;)  and 
during  his  residence  in  that  country  he  was  fully  instruct- 
ed, as  we  may  reasonably  think,  by  divine  revelation, 
and  by  diligent  study  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  the  doc- 
trines and  duties  of  the  Gospel.  Three  years  after 
his  conversion,  he  returned  to  Damascus,  a.d.  38, 
(Gal.  i.  18,)  and  boldly  preached  the  Gospel  to  the  Jews, 


324  EPISTOLARY  OR  DOCTRINAL  WRITINGS 

who,  rejecting  his  testimony,  as  an  apostate,  conspired 
to  kill  him;  but,  the  plot  being  communicated  to  Saul,  he 
escaped  from  Damascus  privately  by  night,  and  went  up 
to  Jerusalem,  for  the  first  time  since  his  conversion.  After 
some  hesitation  on  the  part  of  the  Christians  in  that  city, 
he  was  acknowledged  to  be  a  discjple.  He  remained  at 
Jerusalem  only  fifteen  days,  during  which  his  boldness  in 
preaching  the  Gospel  so  irritated  the  Hellenistic  Jews, 
that  they  conspired  against  him  ;  "  which  when  r he  brethren 
knew,  they  brought  him  down  to  Ccesarea  Fhilippi,  and 
sent  him  forth  to  Tarsus:'  (Acts  ix.  28 — 30.) 

From  that  time  (a.d.  39)  to  the  year  58,  the  apostle 
preached  the  Gospel  in  various  parts  of  Asia  Minor  and 
in  Greece  with  great  energy  and  success ;  but,  being 
rescued  from  a  tumultuous  assembly  of  Jews,  who  would 
have  put  him  to  death,  at  Jerusalem,  (Acts  xxi,  xxii.)  he 
was  sent  Cassarea  by  the  tribune  Lysias,  who  directed  the 
Jewish  council  to  accuse  him  before  Felix,  the  Roman 
procurator.  By  this  officer  he  was  detained  in  prison  two 
years  ;  and,  his  cause  being  heard  before  Festus  the  suc- 
cessor of  Felix,  the  apostle  appealed  to  the  imperial 
tribunal,  and  was  sent  to  Rome,  (Acts  xxiv. — xxvii.)  a.d. 
60.  Here  he  was  confined  two  years,  from  a.d.  61  lo  63. 
As  Saint  Luke  has  not  continued  Saint  Paul's  history  be- 
yond his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  we  have  no  authen- 
tic record  of  his  subsequent  travels  and  labours  from  the 
spring  of  A.D.  63,  when  he  was  released,  to  the  lime  of 
his  martyrdom.  This  is  said  to  have  taken  place  by  de- 
capitaiion,  June  29,  a.d.  66,  at  Aquaj  Salvias,  three  miles 
from  Rome.  Fourteen  epistles  are  extant  bearing  the 
name  of  this  distinguished  "apostle  of  Jesus  Christ," 
whose  life  and  labours  have  justly  been  considered  as  an 
irrefragable  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  Christian  revelation. 

II.  Nature  and  Design  of  the  Epistolary  Writings  of  the 
New  Testament 

The  Epistles,  or  letters  addressed  to  various  Christian 
communities,  and  also  to  individuals,  by  the  apostles  Paul, 
James,  Peter,  and  John,  form  the  second  principal  division 
of  the  New  Testament.  These  writings  abundantly  con- 
firm all  the  material  facts  related  in  the  Gospels  and  Acts 
of  the  Apostles.  The  particulars  of  our  Savour's  life  and 
death  are  often  referred  to  in  them,  as  grounded  upon  the 


OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT,  &c  325 

undoubted  testimony  of  eye-witnesses,  and  as  being  the 
foundation  of  the  Christian  religion.  The  speedy  pro- 
pagation of  the  Christian  faith,  recorded  in  the  Acts, 
is  confirmed  beyond  all  contradiction,  by  innumerable 
passages  in  the  Epistles,  written  to  the  churches  already 
planted ;  and  the  miraculous  gifts,  with  which  the  apostles 
were  endued,  are  often  appealed  to  in  the  same  writings, 
as  an  undeniable  evidence  of  the  divine  mission  of  the 
apostles. 

Though  all  the  essential  doctrines  and  precepts  of  the 
Christian  religion  were  unquestionably  taught  by  our 
Saviour  himself,  and  are  contained  in  the  Gospels,  yet  it 
is  evident  to  any  person  who  attentively  studies  the 
Epistles,  that  they  are  to  be  considered  as  commentaries 
on  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel,  addressed  to  particular 
Christian  societies  or  persons,  in  order  to  explain  and 
apply  those  doctrines  more  fully,  to  confute  some  growing 
errors,  to  compose  differences  and  schisms,  to  reform 
abuses  and  corruptions,  to  excite  the  Christians  to  holiness, 
and  to  encourage  them  against  persecutions.  And  since 
these  Epistles  were  written  (as  we  have  already  shown) 
under  divine  inspiration,  and  have  uniformly  been  received 
by  the  Christian  church  as  the  productions  of  inspired 
writers,  it  consequently  follows,  (notwithstanding  some 
writers  have  insinuated  that  they  are  not  of  equal  authority 
with  the  Gospels,  while  others  would  reject  them  alto- 
gether,) that  what  the  apostles  have  delivered  in  these 
Epistles,  as  necessary  to  be  believed  or  done  by  Christians, 
must  be  as  necessary  to  be  believed  and  practised  in  order 
to  salvation,  as  the  doctrines  and  precepts  delivered  by 
Jesus  Christ  himself,  and  recorded  in  the  Gospels  ;  because 
in  writing  these  Epistles,  the  sacred  penmen  were  the 
servants,  apostles,  ambassadors,  and  ministers  of  Christ, 
and  stewards  of  the  mysteries  of  God,  and  their  doctrine ; 
and  precepts  are  the  will,  the  mind,  the  truth,  and  the  com- 
mandments of  God  himself.  On  account  of  the  fuller  dis- 
plays of  evangelical  truth  contained  in  this  portion  of  the 
sacred  volume,  the  Epistles  have  by  some  divines  been 
termed  the  doctrinal  books  of  the  New  Testament. 

The  Epistles  contained  m  the  Nev/  Testament  are 
twenty-one  in  number,  and  are  generally  divided  into 
two  classes  j  viz. :  the  fourteen  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul, 
28 


326  EPISTOLARY  OR  DOCTRINAL  WRITINGS 

and  the  seven  Catholic  or  general  Epistles,  written  by  the 
apostles  James,  Peter,  John,  and  Jude  :  the  reason  of  this 
appellation  will  be  found  in  Chapter  III.  Sect.  I.  page  338. 
infra. 

The  general  plan  on  which  the  Epistles  are  written,  is, 
firsts  to  discuss  and  decide  the  controversy,  or  to  refute 
the  erroneous  notions,  which  had  arisen  in  the  church,  or 
among  the  persons  to  whom  they  are  addressed,  and 
which  was  the  occasion  of  their  being  written ;  and, 
secondly,  to  recommend  the  observance  of  those  duties, 
which  would  be  necessary,  and  of  absolute  importance  to 
the  Christian  church  in  every  age,  consideration  being 
chiefly  given  to  those  particular  graces  or  virtues  of  the 
Christian  character,  which  the  disputes  that  occasioned 
the  Epistles  might  tempt  them  to  neglect. 

The  observations  on  the  Doctrinal  interpretation  of 
Scripture,  in  pp.  149 — 151,  will  be  found  useful  in  study- 
ing the  Epistles.  A  Table  of  the  limes,  when  they  were 
most  probably  composed,  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix, 
No.  11. 


Sbction.  II,— On  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  though  seventh  in  order  of 
time,  is  placed  first  of  all  the  apostolical  letters,  either 
from  the  pre-eminence  of  Rome,  as  being  the  mistress  of 
the  world,  or  because  it  is  the  longest  and  most  compre- 
hensive of  all  Saint  Paul's  Epistles.  Various  years  have 
been  assigned  for  its  date  :  but  the  most  probable  date  is 
that,  which  refers  this  Epistle  to  the  end  of  57,  or  thf 
beginning  of  58;  at  which  time  Saint  Paul  was  at  Corinth. 

Christianity  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  first 
planted  at  Rome  by  some  of  those  "strangers  of  Rome, 
Jews,  and  proselytes,"  (Acts  ii.  10,)  who  heard  Peter 
preach,  and  were  converted  at  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost. 

The  occasion  of  writing  this  Epistle  may  be  easily 
collected  from  the  Epistle  itself.  It  appears  that  Saint 
Paul,  who  had  been  made  acquainted  with  all  the  circum- 
stances of  the  Christians  at  Rome  by  Aquila  and  Priscilla, 
(Rora.  xvi.  3,)  and  by  other  Jews  who  had  been  expelled 


EPISTOLARY  OR  DOCTRINAL  WRITINGS  327 

from  Rome  by  the  decree  of  Claudius,  (Actsxviii.  2,)  was 
very  desirous  of  seeing  them,  that  he  might  impart  some 
spiritual  gift;  but,  being  prevented  from  visiting  them, as 
he  had  purposed,  in  his  journey  into  Spain,  he  availed 
himself  of  the  op[^ortunity  that  presented  itself  to  him  by 
the  departure  cf  Phoebe  to  Rome,  to  send  them  an  Epistle. 
Finding,  however,  that  the  church  was  composed  partly 
of  Heathens  who  had  embraced  the  Gospel,  and  partly  of 
Jews,  who,  with  many  remaining  prejudices,  believed  in 
Jesus  as  the  Messiah;  and  finding,  also,  that  many  con- 
tentions arose  from  the  Gentile  converts  claiming  equal 
privileges  with  the  Hebrew  Christians,  (which  claims  the 
latter  absolutely  refused  to  admit,  unless  the  Gentile  con- 
verts were  circumcised,)  he  wrote  this  Epistle  to  compose 
these  differences,  and  to  strengthen  the  faith  of  the  Roman 
Christians  against  the  insinuations  of  false  teachers  ;  being 
apprehensive  lest  his  involuntary  absence  from  Rome 
should  be  turned  by  the  latter  to  the  prejudice  of  the 
Gospel. 
This  Epistle  consists  of  four  parts  ;  viz. : 
Part  I.  The  introduction,  (ch.  i.  1 — 13.) 
Part  II.  contains  the  DoctrinalPart  of  the  Epistle  con- 
cerning justification,  (i.  16 — 32,  ii. — xi,) 

Part  HI.  comprises  the  Hortatory  or  Practical  Part 
of  the  Epistle,  (ch.  xii.— xv.  1 — 14,)  "ia  which  the  apos- 
tle exhorts  Christian  believers  to  dedicate  themselves  to 
God,  and  how  they  should  demean  themselves  to  one 
another.. 

Part  IV.  The  Conclusion,  in  which  Saint  Paul  ex- 
cuses himself,  partly  for  his  boldness  in  thus  writing  to 
the  Romans,  (xv.  14 — 21,)  and  partly  for  not  having 
hitherto  come  to  them,  (22,)  but  promises  to  visit  them, 
recommending  himself  to  their  prayers  ;  (23 — 33  ;)  and 
sends  various  salutations  to  the  brethren  at  Rome. 
(xvi.) 

In  perusing  this  Epistle,  it  will  be  desirable  to  read 
at  least  the  eleven  first  chapters  at  once,  uninterruptedly ; 
as  every  sentence,  especially  in  the  argumentative  part, 
bears  an  intimate  relation  to,  and  is  dependent  upon  the 
whole  discourse,  and  cannot  be  understood  unless  we  com- 
prehend the  scope  of  the  whole.  Further,  in  order  to 
enter  fully  into  its  spirit,  we  must  enter  into  the  spirit  of 


328  OF  SACRED  PLACES. 

a  Jew  in  those  times,  and  endeavour  to  realize  in  our 
own  minds  his  utter  aversion  from  the  Gentiles,  his  valu- 
ing and  exalting  himself  upon  his  relation  to  God  and  to 
Abraham,  and  also  upon  his  law,  pompous  worship,  cir- 
cumcision, <fec.  as  if  the  Jews  were  the  only  people  in  the 
world  who  had  any  right  to  the  favour  of  God. 


Section  III.— On  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corintliians. 

This  Epistle  was  written  from  Ephesus,  about  the  year 
57  :  its  genuineness  was  never  disputed. 

Christianity  was  first  planted  at  Corinth,  by  St.  Paul 
himself,  who  resided  here  a  year  and  six  months,  between 
the  years  51  and  53.  The  church  consisted  partly  of 
Jews,  and  partly  of  Gentiles,  but  chiefly  of  the  latter  ; 
whence  the  apostle  had  to  combat,  sometimes  with  Jewish 
superstition,  and  sometimes  with  Heathen  licentiousness. 
On  Saint  Paul's  departure  from  Corinth,  he  was  succeeded 
by  Apollos,  "  an  eloquent  man,  and  mighty  in  the  Scrip- 
tures," who  preached  the  Gospel  with  great  success.  (Acts 
xviii.  24 — 28.)  Acquila  and  Sosthenes  were  also  eminent 
teachers  in  this  church,  (xviii.  3.  1  Cor.  i.  1.)  But  shortly 
after  Saint  Paul  quitted  this  church,  its  peace  was  disturb- 
ed by  the  intrusion  of  false  teachers,  who  made  great  preten- 
sions to  eloquence,  wisdom,  and  knowledge  of  their  Chris- 
tian liberty,  and  thus  undermined  his  influence  and  the 
credit  of  his  ministry.  Hence  two  parlies  were  formed, 
one  of  which  contended  strenuously  for  the  observance  of 
Jewish  ceremonies,  while  the  other,  misinterpreting  the 
true  nature  of  Christian  liberty,  indulged  in  excesses 
which  were  contrary  to  the  design  and  spirit  of  the  Gospel. 
One  party  boasted  that  they  were  the  followers  of  Paul ; 
and  another,  that  they  were  the  followers  of  Apollos*. 
To  correct  these  and  other  abuses,  and  also  to  answer 
some  queries  which  the  Christians  at  Corinth  had  propo- 
sed to  th^  apostle,  was  the  design  of  this  Epistle,  which 
divides  itself  into  three  parts  ;  viz. : 

Part  I.  The  Introduction,  (cli.  i.  1 — 9,)^n  which  Saint 
Paul  expresses  his  satisfaction  at  ail  the  good  he  knew  of 


OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT,  &c.  329 

them,  particularly  at  their  having  received  the  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  for  the  confirmation  of  the  Gospel. 

Part  II.  contains  the  Treatise,  or  Discussion  of  various 
particulars,  adapted  to  the  state  of  the  Corinthian  church ; 
which  may  be  commodiously  arranged  into  two  sections. 

Sect,  1.  contains  a  reproof  of  the  corruptions  and  abuses  which  dis- 
graced the  church,  (i.  10.— vi.  1—20. 

Sect.  2,  contains  an  answer  to  the  questions  which  the  Corinthian 
church  had  proposed  to  the  apostle,  (vii. — xv.) 

Part  III.  contains  the  conclusion,  comprising  directions 
relative  to  the  contributions  for  the  saints  at  Jerusalem, 
promises  that  the  apostle  would  shortly  visit  them,  and 
salutations  to  various  members  of  the  church  at  Corinth, 
(xvi.) 


Section  IV.— On  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 

This  Epistle  was  written  from  Macedonia,  most  proba- 
bly from  Philippi,  and  within  a  year  after  the  preceding 
Epistle,  that  is,  early  in  the  year  58  :  its  genuineness  was 
never  doubted.  Compelled  to  vindicate  his  apostolic  cha- 
racter. Saint  Paul  here  furnishes  us  with  many  interesting 
details  respecting  his  personal  history  and  sufferings  for  the 
name  and  faith  of  Christ.  He  commends  the  faithful  mem- 
bers of  the  church  at  Corinth,  for  their  obedience  to  his 
injunctions  contained  in  his  former  Epistle,  and  particu- 
larly for  excommunicating  an  incestuous  person  ;  and  ex- 
cites them  to  finish  their  contributions  for  their  poor  bre- 
thren in  Judaea. 

This  epistle  consists  of  three  parts,  viz. : 

Part  I.  The  Introduction,  (ch.  i.  1,  2.) 

Part  II.  The  Apologetic  Discourse  of  Saint  Paul ;  in 
which 

1.  He  justifies  himself  from  the  imputations  of  the  false  teacher  and 
his  adherents,  by  showing  his  sincerity  and  integrity  in  the  discharge  of 
his  ministry  ;  and  that  he  acted  not  from  worldly  interest,  but  from  true 
love  for  them,  and  a  tender  concern  for  their  spiritual  welfare,  (i,  3—24, 
IL— vii.) 

2.  He  exhorts  them  to  a  liberal  contribution  for  their  poor  brethren  in 
Judaea,  (viii.,  ix.) 

3.  He  resumes  his  apology ;  justifying  himself  from  the  charges  andin> 
slnuations  of  the  false  teacher,  and  his  followers ;  in  order  to  detach  the 
Corinthians  from  them,  and  to  re-establish  himself  and  his  authority,  (x. 
— xiii.  10.) 

Part  III.  The  Conclusion,  (xiii.  11—14.) 

28* 


330  EPISTOLARY  OR  DOCTRINAL  WRITINGS 


Sbction  v.— On  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  among  whom  Christianity 
had  been  planted  by  Saint  Paul  himself,  was  most  proba- 
bly written  from  Corinth,  about  the  latter  end  of  the  year 
62,  or  early  in  53.  The  apostle's  design  in  writing  it  was, 
first,  to  assert  his  apostolical  character  and  authority,  and  the 
doctrine  which  he  taught,  in  opposition  to  the  erroneous 
tenets  of  a  Judaising  teacher ;  and,  secondly,  to  confirm 
the  Galatian  churches  in  the  faith  of  Christ,  especially 
with  respect  to  the  important  point  of  justification  by  faith 
alone ;  to  expose  the  errors  which  had  been  disseminated 
among  them,  by  demonstrating  to  them  the  true  nature 
and  use  of  the  moral  and  ceremonial  law  ;  and  to  revive 
those  principles  of  Christianity  which  he  had  taught  when 
he  first  preached  the  Gospel  to  them. 

This  Epistle  is  written  with  great  energy  and  force  of 
language,  and  affords  a  fine  specimen  of  Saint  Paul's  skill 
in  conducting  an  argument.  It  consists  of  three  parts, 
viz. : 

Part  I.  The  Introduction,  (ch.  i.  1 — 5.) 

Part  II.  The  Treatise,  or  Discussion  of  the  subjects 
which  had  occasioned  this  Epistle :  in  which  the  apostle 
first  vindicates  his  doctrine  and  authority  ;  (ch.  i.  6 — 24, 
ii.  ;)  and  then  disputes  against  the  advocates  for  circum- 
cision, (iii. — V.  9,)  and  gives  the  Galatian  Christians  various 
instructions  for  their  conduct,  (v.  10 — 26,  vi.  1 — 10.) 

Part  III.  The  Conclusion,  which  is  a  summary  of  the 
topics  discussed  in  this  Epistle,  terminates  with  an  apos- 
tolic benediction,  (vi.  11 — 18.) 


Section  VI.— On  the  Epistle  to  the  Epheslons. 

Ephesus  was  the  metropolis  of  the  proconsular  Asia, 
distinguished  for  the  magnificent  temple  of  Diaua,  there 
erected,  as  well  as  for  the  accomplishments,  luxury,  and 
lasciviousness  of  its  inhabitants.  Christianity  was  first 
planted  here,  about  a.  d.  54,  by  Saint  Paul  ;  who  wrote 
tliis  Epistle,  (the  genuineness  of  which  is  undisputed,)  about 


OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT,  &c  ^l 

the  year  61,  during  the  early  part  of  his  imprisonment  at 
Rome.  In  this  animated  epistle  he  shows  the  grand  design 
of  the  Gospel,  and  exhorts  his  converts  against  those  evit 
practices  and  customs  to  which  they  had  been  addicted 
when  Heathens,  (ch.  i. — iii.,)  and  which,  as  believers  in 
Christ,  they  had  renounced.  He  then  urges  them  to  walk 
in  a  manner  becoming  their  profession,  in  the  faithful  dis- 
charge both  of  the  general  and  common  duties  of  religion, 
and  of  the  special  duties  of  particular  relations,  (iv.,  v.  1 
—9,)  and  encourages  them  to  war  the  spiritual  warfare, 
and  concludes  with  his  apostolic  benediction,  (vi.  10 — 24.) 


Section  vn.— On  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippiaiis. 

This  Epistle  was  written  to  the  Philippians  towards  the 
close  of  Saint  Paul's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  about 
the  end  of  the  year  6*2,  or  early  in  63 :  its  genuineness 
was  never  questioned.  Its  scope  is  to  confirm  them  in  the 
faith  of  the  Gospel,  (ch.  i.  1 — 20,)  and  to  encourage  them 
to  walk  in  a  manner  becoming  their  holy  profession,  (i.  21 
— 30,  ii.)  He  then  cautions  them  against  those  Judaising 
teachers  who  preached  Christ  through  envy  and  strife, 
(iii.,  iv.  1,)  and  concludes  with  various  exhortations,  at  the 
same  time  testifying  his  gratitude  to  them  for  their  Chris- 
tian bounty  to  him  during  his  imprisonment,  (iv.  2 — 23.) 


Section  Vni.— On  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians. 

This  Epistle  bears  so  close  a  resemblance  to  that  ad- 
dressed to  the  Ephesians,  that  they  ought  to  be  read 
together,  in  order  to  be  fully  understood.  It  is  not  known 
by  whom  Christianity  was  first  planted  at  Colossae :  from 
internal  evidence  we  are  enabled  to  refer  its  date  to  the 
year  62.  No  doubt  was  ever  entertained  respecting  its 
genuineness. 

The  scope  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  is,  Jirst,  to 
show,  in  opposition  to  the  errors  of  some  Judaising  teach- 
ers, that  all  hope  of  man's  redemption  is  founded  on  Christ 
our  Redeemer,  in  whom  alone  all  complete  fulness,  perfec- 
tions, and  sufficiency,   are  centred  j  (ch.  i.,  ii.    1 — 7 ;) 


332  EPISTOLARY  OR  DOCTRINAL  WRITINGS 

secondly^  to  caution  the  Colossians  against  the  insinuations 
of  Judaising  teachers,  and  also  against  philosophical  specu- 
lations and  deceits,  and  human  traditions,  as  inconsistent 
with  Christ,  and  his  fulness  for  our  salvation  ;  (ii.  8 — 23;) 
and  to  excite  the  Colossians,  by  the  most  persuasive  argu- 
ments, to  a  temper  and  conduct  worthy  of  their  sacred 
character,  (iii.,  iv.  1 — 6.)  The  Epistle  concludes  with 
matters  chiefly  of  a  private  nature,  except  the  directions 
for  reading  it  in  the  church  of  Laodicea,  as  well  as  that  of 
Colossa?.  (iv.  7—18.) 

The  Epistle  from  Laodicea,  mentioned  in  ch.  iv.  16, 
which  some  have  supposed  to  have  been  an  epistle  to  the 
church  at  Laodicea,  was  most  probably  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians ;  Laodicea  being  within  the  circuit  of  the  Ephe- 
sian  church. 


Section  IX.— On  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians 

Thessalonica  was  a  large  and  populous  city  and  seaport 
of  Macedonia,  the  capital  of  one  of  the  four  districts  into 
which  the  Romans  divided  that  country  after  its  conquest 
by  Paulus  iEmylius.  Besides  being  the  seat  of  the  pro- 
consul of  Macedonia,  Thessalonica  was  commodiously 
situated  for  commerce,  which  was  carried  on  by  its  inhabit- 
ants to  a  considerable  extent :  the  Jews  were  very  nume- 
rous here.  Cliristianity  was  first  planted  here  by  St. 
Paul,  A.  D.  50.  The  first  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians 
was  the  earliest  of  all  that  apostle's  writings:  its  date  is 
referred  to  the  year  52,  and  its  genuineness  has  never 
been  questioned. 

St.  Paul  having  heard  a  favourable  report  of  the  stead- 
fastness of  the  Thessalonians  in  the  faith  of  Christ,  wrote 
this  Epistle  to  confirm  them  in  that  faith,  and  to  animate 
them  to  a  holy  conversation,  becoming  the  dignity  of  their 
high  and  holy  calling.  With  this  view,  after  a  short  intro- 
duction, (ch.  i.  1 — 4,)  he  proceeds  to  show  the  divine  ori- 
gin of  the  Christian  revelation,  by  the  four  following  argu- 
ments ;  viz. : 

I.  The  miracles  wrought  by  tlie  first  preaciiers  of  the 
Gospel,  in  attestation  of  their  divine   commission,  (i.  5 


OP  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT,  &c.  333 

II.  That  their  character,  behaviour,  and  views,  evi- 
denced its  truth,  (ii.,  iii.) 

III.  That  the  first  preachers  of  the  Gospel  delivered  to 
their  disciples,  from  the  very  beginning,  precepts  of  the 
greatest  strictness  and  holiness  ;  so  that,  by  the  sanctity  of 
its  precepts,  the  Gospel  is  shown  to  be  a  scheme  of  religion, 
every  way  worthy  of  the  true  God,  and  highly  beneficial 
to  mankind,  (iv.  1 — 12.)  The  practical  directions  intro- 
duced in  this  part  of  the  Epistle  were  admirably  suited  to 
the  state  of  the  Thessalonian  church. 

IV.  That  Jesus  Christ,  the  Author  of  our  religion,  was 
declared  to  be  the  Son  of  God  and  the  Judge  of  the  world 
by  his  resurrection  from  the  dead  ;  and  that,  by  the  same 
miracle,  his  own  promise,  and  the  predictions  of  his  apos- 
tles, concerning  his  return  from  Heaven  to  reward  the 
righteous  and  punish  the  wicked — especially  those  who 
obey  not  the  Gospel — are  rendered  absolutely  certain,  (iv. 
13_18,  V.  1— 11.) 

The  Epistle  concludes  with  various  practical  advices 
and  instructions,  (v.  12 — 28.) 


Section  X.— On  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians. 

This  Epistle  was  evidently  written  soon  after  the  first : 
{a.  d.  52  :)  its  scope  principally  is,  to  rectify  a  mistake  of 
the  Thessalonians,  who,  from  misunderstanding  a  passage 
in  his  former  letter,  imagined  that  the  day  of  judgment 
was  at  hand.     This  Epistle  consists  of  five  parts ;  viz. : 

Part  I.  The  Inscription,  (i.  1,  2.) 

Part  II.  Saint  Paul's  Thanksgiving  and  Prayer  for 
them.  (i.  3—12.) 

Part  III.  The  Rectification  of  their  Mistake,  and  the 
Doctrine  concerning  the  man  of  sin.  (ii.) 

Part  IV.  Various  Advices  relative  to  Christian  virtues, 

particularly, 

I.  To  Prayer,  with  a  prayer  for  the  Thessalonians.  (iv.  1—5.) 
Ii.  To  correct  the  disorderly,  (iv.  6—16.) 

Part  V.  The  Conclusion,  (ii.  17,  18.) 


334  EPISTOLARY  OR  DOCTRINAL  WRITINGS 


Section  XL— On  the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy. 

Timothy,  to  whom  this  Epistle  was  addressed,  was  a 
native  of  Lystra,  a  city  of  Lycaonia,  in  Asia  Minor.  His 
father  was  a  Greek,  but  his  mother  was  a  Jewess,  (Acts 
xvi.  1,)  and,  as  well  as  his  grandmother  Lois^  a  person  of 
excellent  character.  (2  Tim.  i.  5.)  The  pious  care  they 
took  of  his  education  soon  appeared  to  have  the  desired 
success  ;  for  we  are  assured  by  Saint  Paul,  that,  from  his 
childhood,  Timothy  was  well  acquainted  with  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  (2  Tim.  iii.  15.)  It  is  generally  supposed  that 
he  was  converted  to  the  Christian  faith  during  the  first 
visit  made  by  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Lystra.  (Acts  xiv.) 
From  the  time  of  his  conversion,  Timothy  made  such  pro- 
ficiency in  the  knowledge  of  the  Gospel,  and  was  so  re- 
markable for  the  sanctity  of  his  manners,  as  well  as  for 
his  zeal  in  the  cause  of  Christ,  that  he  attracted  the  esteem 
of  all  the  brethren  in  those  parts.  Accordingly,  when  the 
apostle  came  from  Antioch,  in  Syria,  to  Lystra,  the  second 
time,  they  commended  Timothy  so  highly  to  him,  that 
Saint  Paul  selected  him  to  be  the  companion  of  his  tra- 
vels, having  previously  circumcised  him,  (Acts  xvi.  1 — 3,) 
and  ordained  him  in  a  solemn  manner  by  imposition  of 
hands,  (1  Tim.  iv.  14.  2  Tim.  i.  G,)  though  at  that  time 
he  probably  was  not  more  than  twenty  years  of  age.  (1 
Tim.  iv.  12.)  From  this  period  frequent  mention  is  made 
of  Timothy,  as  the  attendant  of  Saint  Paul  in  his  various 
journeys,  assisting  him  in  preaching  the  Gospel,  and  in 
conveying  his  instructions  to  the  churches. 

The  date  of  this  Epistle  has  been  much  disputed,  some 
writers  placing  it  so  early  as  the  year  56,  and  others  so 
late  as  the  year  64.  The  latter  is  considered  the  most 
probable.  This  Epistle  has  always  been  acknowledged  to 
be  the  undisputed  production  of  Saint  Paul 

Timothy  having  been  left  at  Ephesus,  to  regulate  the 
aflairs  of  the  church  in  that  city.  Saint  Paul  wrote  this 
E|)istle  chiefly  to  instruct  him  in  the  choice  of  proper 
oflicers  in  the  church,  as  well  as  in  the  exercise  of  a  regu- 
lar ministry.  Another,  and  very  important  part  of  the 
apostle's  design,  was  to  caution  this  young  evangelist 
against  the  influence  of  those  false  teachers,  who,  by  their 


OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT,  &c.  335 

subtle  distinctions,  and  endless  controversies,  had  corrupt- 
ted  the  purity  and  simplicity  of  the  Gospel ;  to  press  upon 
him,  in  all  his  preaching,  a  constant  regard  to  the  interests 
of  practical  religion  ;  and  to  animate  him  to  the  greatest 
diligence,  fidelity,  and  zeal,  in  the  discharge  of  his  office. 
The  Epistle,  therefore,  consists  of  three  parts  ;  viz. : 

Part  I.  The  introduction,  (ch.  i.  1,  2.) 

Part  II.  Instructions  to  Timothy  how  to  behave  in  the 
administration  of  the  church  at  Ephesus.  (ii. — vi.  19.) 

Part  III.  The  Conclusion,  (vi.  20,  21.) 


Section  XII.— On  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy. 

This  Epistle  was  written  during  Saint  Paul's  second 
imprisonment,  and  not  long  before  his  martyrdom,  most 
probably  in  the  month  of  July  or  August,  a.  d.  65. 

The  immediate  design  of  Saint  Paul,  in  writing  this 
Epistle  to  Timothy,  was  to  apprise  him  of  the  circum- 
stances that  had  befallen  him  during  his  second  imprison- 
ment at  Rome,  and  to  request  him  to  come  to  him  before 
tne  ensuing  winter.  But,  being  uncertain  whether  he 
should  live  so  long,  he  gave  him  in  this  letter  a  variety  of 
advices,  charges  and  encouragements  for  the  faithful  dis- 
charge of  his  ministerial  functions,  with  the  solemnity 
and  affection  of  a  dying  parent ;  in  order  that,  if  he  should 
be  put  to  death  before  Timothy's  arrival,  the  loss  might,  in 
some  measure,  be  compensated  to  him  by  the  instructions 
contained  in  this  admirable  Epistle.  With  this  view  he 
exhorts  him  to  stir  up  the  gift  which  had  been  conferred 
upon  him ;  (2  Tim.  i.  2 — 5;)  not  to  be  ashamed  of  the 
testimony  of  the  Lord,  nor  of  Paul's  sufferings;  (6 — 16;) 
to  hold  fast  the  form  of  sound  words,  and  to  guard  in- 
violable that  good  deposit  of  Gospel  doctrine,  (i.  13,  14,) 
which  he  was  to  commit  to  faithful  men  who  should  be 
able  to  teach  others  ;  (ii.  1,  2;)  to  endure,  with  fortitude, 
persecutions  for  the  sake  of  the  Gospel;  (ii.  3 — 13  ;)  to 
suppress  and  avoid  logomachies ;  (14.  23  ;)  to  approve 
himself  a  faithful  minister  of  the  word  ;  (15--22  ;)  and  to 
forewarn  him  of  the  perils  of  the  last  days,  in  consequence 
of  wicked  hypocritical  seducers  and  enemies  of  the  truth, 
who,  even  then,  were  beginning  to  rise  in  the  church. 


336  EPISTOLARY  OR  DOCTRINAL  WRITINGS 

These  Saint  Paul  admonishes  Timothy  to  flee,  giving  him 
various  cautions  against  them,  (iii.) 

This  Epistle  affords  a  beautiful  instance  of  the  conso- 
lations which  the  Gospel  imparts  to  all  that  truly  believe 
it.  "  Imagine,"  says  a  learned  commentator  of  the  18th 
century,  (Dr.  Benson  ;) — "  Imagine  a  pious  father,  under 
sentence  of  death  for  his  piety  and  benevolence  to  man- 
kind, writing  to  a  dutiful  and  affectionate  son,  that  he 
might  see  and  embrace  him  again  before  he  left  the  world; 
particularly  that  he  might  leave  with  him  his  dying  com- 
mands, and  charge  him  to  live  and  suffer  as  he  had  done: 
and  you  will  have  the  frame  of  the  apostle's  mind,  durinff 
the  writing  of  this  whole  Epistle."  (Pref.  to  2  Tim.  p.  517. ) 


Sectiom  xni.— On  the  Epistle  to  Titus. 

Titus  was  a  Greek,  and  one  of  St.  Paul's  early  con- 
verts, who  attended  him  and  Barnabas  to  the  first  council 
at  Jerusalem,  a.  d.  49,  and  afterwards  on  his  ensuing  cir- 
cuit. (Tit.  i.  4.  Gal.  ii.  1 — 3.  Acts  xv.  2.)  Subsequently, 
he  was  confidentially  employed  by  the  apostle  on  various 
occasions  ;  and,  as  appears  from  this  Epistle,  was  specially 
appointed  by  him  to  regulate  the  Christian  churches  in 
that  island.  Whether  Titus  ever  quitted  Crete,  we  know 
not;  neither  have  we  any  certain  information  concerning 
the  time,  place,  or  manner  of  his  death  ;  but,  according  to 
ancient  ecclesiastical  tradition,  he  lived  to  the  age  of 
ninety-four  years,  and  died  and  was  buried  in  that  island. 

This  Epistle,  the  genuineness  of  which  was  never  ques- 
tioned, is  supposed  to  have  been  written  after  St.  Paul's 
liberation  from  his  first  imprisonment,  a.  d.  64.  Titus 
having  been  left  in  Crete  to  settle  the  churches  in  the  se- 
veral cities  of  that  island,  according  to  the  apostolical 
plan.  Saint  Paul  wrote  this  Epistle  to  him,  that  he  might 
discharge  his  ministry  among  the  Cretans  with  the 
greater  success,  and  to  give  him  particular  instructions 
concerning  his  behaviour  towards  the  Judaising  teachers, 
who  endeavoured  to  pervert  the  faith,  and  disturb  the 
peace  of  the  Christian  church.  The  Epistle,  therefore, 
consists  of  three  parts. 

Part  I.  The  inscription,  (ch.  i.  1 — 4.) 


OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT,  &C.  337 

Part  II.  Instructions  to  Titus.  1.  Concerning  the 
ordination  of  elders,  that  is,  of  bishops  and  deacons,  (i, 
5 — 16.) — 2.  To  accommodate  his  exhortaiions  to  the  re- 
spective ages,  sexes,  and  circumsiances  of  those  whom  he 
was  commissioned  to  instruct;  and,  to  give  the  greater 
weight  to  his  instructions,  he  admonishes  him  to  be  an 
example  of  what  he  taught,  (ii.) — 3.  To  inculcate  obedi- 
ence to  the  civil  magistrate,  in  opposition  to  the  Jews  and 
Judaising  teachers,  who,  being  averse  from  all  civil  gover- 
nors, except  such  as  were  of  their  own  nation,  -were  apt 
to  imbue  Gentile  Christians  with  a  like  seditious  spirit,  as 
if  it  were  an  indignity  for  the  people  of  God  to  obey  an 
idolatrous  magistrate  ;  and  also  to  enforce  gentleness  to 
all  men.  (iii.  I — 7.) — 4.  To  enforce  good  works,  avoid 
foolish  questions,  and  to  shun  heretics,  (iii.  8 — 11.) 

Part  III.  An  invitation  to  Titus,  to  come  to  the  apos- 
tle at  Nicopolis,  together  with  various  directions,  (iii. 
12—15.) 


Section  XIV.— On  the  Epistle  to  Philemon. 

Philemon  was  an  inhabitant  of  Colossae,  most  probably 
a  converted  Gentile,  and  it  should  seem,  an  opulent  and 
benevolent  Christian.  As  it  is  evident,  from  the  Epistle 
itself,  that  St.  Paul  was  under  confinement  when  he  wrote 
it,  and  as  he  expresses  (verse  22)  his  expectation  of  being 
shortly  released,  it  is  probable  that  it  was  written  during 
his  first  imprisonment  at  Kome,  toward  the  end  of  a.  d. 
62,  or  early  in  63  ;  and  was  sent,  together  with  the  Epis- 
tles to  the  Ephesians  and  Colossians,  by  Tychicus  and 
Onesimus.  Though  some,  formerly,  questioned  the  ge- 
nuineness of  this  Epistle,  the  attestations  it  has  received, 
from  the  earliest  antiquity,  are  deemed  sufficient  to  estab- 
lish that  point.  The  design  of  this  short  but  beautiful  and 
persuasive  letter  is,  to  recommend  Onesimus,  formerly 
the  runaway  slave  of  Philemon,  (but  now  a  Christian 
convert,)  to  liio  master,  and  induce  him  to  receive  him 
again  into  his  house.  Whether  Philemon  pardoned  or 
punished  Onesimus,  we  have  no  information. 


29 


338  EPISTOLARY  OR  DOCTRINAL  WRITINGS. 


Section  XV. — On  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

The  Hebrews,  to  whom  this  Epistle  is  addressed,  were 
Jewish  Christians,  resident  in  Palestine:  and,  though  con- 
siderable difference  of  opinion  exists  concerning  its  author, 
yet  the  similarity  of  its  style  and  expressions  to  that  of 
St.  Paul's  other  Epistles,  proves  that  it  was  written  by 
him  in  Greek,  and  not  in  Hebrew,  as  some  eminent  critics 
have  supposed.  The  absence  of  his  name  is  accounted 
for  by  the  consideration  that  he  withheld  it,  lest  he  should 
give  umbrage  to  the  Jews.  This  Epistle  was  writtea 
from  Rome,  not  long  before  he  left  Italy  ;  viz. :  at  the  end 
of  A.  D.  62,  or  early  in  63. 

The  occasion  of  writing  this  Epistle  will  be  sufficiently 
apparent  from  an  attentive  review  of  its  contents.  The 
Jews  did  every  thing  in  their  power  to  withdraw  their  bre- 
thren, who  had  been  converted,  from  the  Christian  faith  : 
to  specious  arguments,  drawn  from  the  excellency  of  the 
Jewish  religion,  they  added  others  more  cogent,  namely, 
persecution  and  menaces.  The  object  of  the  apostle, 
therefore,  in  writing  this  letter,  is  to  show  the  deity  of 
Jes'is  Christ,  and  the  excellency  of  his  Gospel,  when  com- 
pared with  the  institutions  of  Moses  ;  to  prevent  the  He- 
brews, or  Jewish  converts,  from  relapsing  into  those  rites 
and  ceremonies  which  were  now  abolished  ;  and  to  point 
out  their  total  insufficiency,  as  means  of  reconciliation  and 
atonement.  The  reasonings  are  interspersed  with  nume- 
rous solemn  and  affectionate  warnings  and  exhortations, 
addressed  to  different  descriptions  of  persons.  At  length 
St.  Paul  shows  the  nature,  efficacy,  and  triumph  of  faith, 
by  which  all  the  saints  in  former  ages  had  been  accepted 
by  God,  and  enabled  to  obey,  suffer,  and  perform  exploits 
in  defence  of  their  holy  religion  ;  from  which  he  takes  oc- 
casion to  exhort  the  Hebrew  Christians  to  steadfastness 
and  perseverance  in  the  true  f^iitli. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  consists  of  three  parts ; 
viz. : 

Part  I.  demonstrates  the  Deity  of  Christ,  by  the  explicit 
declarations  of  Scripture  concerning  his  su|)oriorIty  to  an- 
gels, to  Moses,  to  Aaron,  and  the  whole  Jewisli  priesthood, 
and  the  typical  nature  of  the  Mosaic  ritual,  (ch.  i. — x.  18.) 


ON  THE  CATHOLIC  EPISTLES  339 

Part  II.  comprehends  the  Application  of  the  preced- 
ing arguments  and  proofs,  (x.  19-— 39,  to  xiii.  1 — 19,)  in 
which  the  Hebrews  are  exhorted  to  steadfastness  in  the 
faith  of  Christ,  and  are  encouraged  by  the  examples  of 
believers  in  former  ages.  (ch.  x.  19 — 89,  to  xiii.  1 — 19.) 

Part  III.  The  conclusion,  containing  a  prayer  for  the 
Hebrews,  and  apostolical  salutations,  (ch.  xiii.  20 — ^25.) 


CHAPTER  III. 

ON  THE  CATHOLIC   EPISTLES, 

Section  L — On  the  Genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  Catholic 
Epistles. 

The  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul  are  followed  in  the  canon 
of  the  New  Testament  by  seven  Epistles,  bearing  the 
names  of  the  apostles  James,  Peter,  Jude,  and  John.  For 
many  centuries,  these  Epistles  have  been  generally  term- 
ed Catholic^  or  General  Epistles,  because  they  are  not 
addressed  to  the  believers  of  some  particular  city  or 
country,  or  to  individuals,  as  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  were, 
but  to  Christians  in  general,  or  to  Christians  of  several 
countries. 

Although  the  authenticity  of  the  Epistle  of  James,  the 
second  of  Peter,  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  and  the  second  and 
third  Epistles  of  John,  was  questioned  by  some  ancient 
fathers,  as  well  as  by  some  modern  writers,  yet  we  have 
every  reason  to  believe  that  they  are  the  genuine  and  au- 
thentic productions  of  the  inspired  writers  whose  names 
they  bear.  The  claims  to  authenticity  of  these  disputed 
Epistles  are  briefly  noticed  in  the  following  sections.  In- 
deed, the  ancient  Christians  had  such  good  opportunities 
for  examining  this  subject,  they  exercised  so  much  caution 
in  guarding  against  imposition,  and  so  well  founded  was 
their  judgment  concerning  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, that  no  writing  which  they  pronounced  genuine  has 
yet  been  proved  spurious ;  nor  have  we,  at  this  day,  the 
least  reason  to  believe  any  book  to  be  genuine  which 
they  rejected. 


340  ^N  THE  CATHOLIC  EPISTLEa 


Section  II.— On  the  General  Epistle  of  James. 

James,  tlio  author  of  this  Epistle,  was  tlie  son  of  Al- 
pheus,  or  Cleophas ;  and  is  by  St.  Paul  termed  the 
*  Brother,"  or  near  relation  of  our  Lord,  (Gal.  i.  18,19,) 
and  is  also  generally  termed  "  the  Less,"  partly  to  distin- 
guish him  from  the  other  James,  and  probably,  also,  be- 
cause he  was  lower  in  stature.  That  he  was  an  apostle  is 
evident  from  various  passages  in  the  New  Testament, 
though  it  does  not  appear  when  his  designation  to  this 
office  took  place.  He  was  honoured  by  Jesus  Christ  with 
a  separate  interview  soon  after  his  resurrection.  (1  Cor. 
XV.  7.)  He  was  distinguished  as  one  of  the  apostles  of 
the  circumcision;  (Acts  i.  13;)  and  soon  after  the  death 
of  Stephen,  a.  d.  34,  he  seems  to  have  been  appointed 
president,  or  bishop  of  the  Christian  church  at  Jerusalem, 
to  have  dwelt  in  that  city,  and  to  have  presided  at  tlie 
council  of  the  apostles,  which  was  convened  there  a.  d. 
49.  On  account  of  his  distinguished  piety  and  sanctity, 
he  «i'as  surnamed  "  the  Just."  He  is  said  to  have  been 
stoned  to  death  by  the  Jews,  a.  p.  02  ;  and  most  beamed 
men  agree  in  placing  his  Epistle  in  the  year  61.  Though 
its  autlienlicity  has  been  doubted  by  son)e  critics,  w(!  iiave 
every  reason  to  believe?  it  genuine,  because  it  is  cited  by 
two  of  the  apostolic  fathers  (those  who  immediately  suc- 
cprded  t!ie  aposlles  of  Jesus  Christ,)  and  by  several  suc- 
ceeding writers.  But  the  most  decisive  pi'oof  of  its  canon- 
ical authority  is,  tl-at  the  Epistle  of  Saint  James  is  inserted 
in  the  Syriac  version  of  the  New  Testament,  executed  at 
the  close  of  the  first,  or  early  in  the  second  century,  in 
which  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter,  the  second  and  third 
of  John,  the  Epistle  of  Judo,  and  the  Book  of  Revelation 
are  omitted. 

The  persons  to  whom  this  Epistle  is  addressed  were  He- 
brew Christians,  who  were  in  danger  of  falling  into  the 
sins  which  abounded  among  the  Jews  of  that  lime.  The 
apostle,  iherefore,  cautions  ihem  against  those  sins,  and 
comforts  them  under  the  persecutions  to  which  they  were 
exposed;  and  in  the  course  of  his  episile  he  lakes  occa- 
sion, in  chap.  ii.  14 — 20,  to  rectify  the  notions  of  the  He- 
brew Christians  concerning  the   doctrine  o(  justijicatton 


ON  THE  CATHOLIC  EPISTLES.  34 1 

ly  faith.  For  as  they  were  not  to  be  justified  by  the 
law,  but  by  the  method  proposed  in  the  Gospel,  and  that 
method  was  said  to  be  by  faith,  without  the  works  of  the 
law  ;  they,  some  of  them  weakly,  and  others,  perhaps, 
wilfully,  perverted  that  discovery  ;  and  were  for  under- 
standing, by  faith,  a  bare  assent  to  the  truth  of  the  Gos- 
pel, without  that  living,  fruitful,  and  evangelical  faith, 
which  "  workeih  by  love,"  and  is  required  of  all  that 
would  be  saved. 

The  Epistle  of  Saint  James  divides  itself  into  three 
parts,  exclusive  of  the  Introduction  ;  (ch.  i.  1  ;)  viz.  : 

Part  I.  contains  Exhortations  to  patience,  humility,  and 
suitable  dispositions  for  receiving  the  word  of  God  aright, 
(ch.  i.  2—27.) 

Part  II.  censures  and  condemns  various  sinful  prac- 
tices and  erroneous  notions  ;  and  here  their  mistaken 
notions  of  justification  by  faith  without  works,  are  cor- 
rected and  illustrated  by  the  examples  of  Abraham  and 
Kahab.  (ii.— v.  1—6.) 

Part  III.  comprises  various  Exhortations  and  Cautions. 
(v.  7—20.) 


Section  III.— On  the  First  General  Epistle  of  Peter. 

Simon,  surnamed  Cephas  or  Peter,  which  appellation 
signifies  a  stone  or  rock,  was  the  son  of  Jonas  or  Jonah, 
and  was  born  at  Bethsaida,  on  the  coast  of  the  sea  of 
Galilee.  He  had  a  brother,  called  Andrew,  and  they 
jointly  pursued  the  occupation  of  fishermen  on  that  lake. 
These  two  brothers  were  hearers  of  John  the  Baptist; 
from  whose  express  testimony,  and  their  own  personal 
conversation  with  Jesus  Christ,  they  were  fully  convinced 
that  he  was  the  Messiah  ;  (John  i.  35 — 42  ;)  and,  from 
this  time,  it  is  probable  that  they  had  frequent  intercourse 
with  our  Saviour,  and  were  witnesses  of  some  of  the 
miracles  wrought  by  him,  particularly  that  performed  at 
Cana  in  Galilee.  (John  ii.  I,  2.)  Both  Peter  and  Andrew 
seem  to  have  followed  their  trade,  until  Jesus  Christ 
called  them  to  "  follow  him,"  and  promised  to  make  them 
"  both  fishers  of  men."  (Malt.  iv.  18, 19,  Mark  i.  17.  Luke 
V.  10.)     From  this  time  thev  became  his  companions, 

29* 


342  ON  THE  CATHOLIC  EPISTLES. 

and  when  he  completed  ihe  number  of  his  apostles  they 
were  included  among  them.  Peter,  in  particular,  was 
honoured  with  his  master's  intimacy,  together  with 
James  and  John  :  he  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Gos- 
pels, and  in  the  former  part  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
We  know  nothingof  his  personal  history  after  the  apostolic 
council,  related  in  Acts  xv.,  (which  is  the  last  place  where 
he  is  mentioned  by  Luke,)  until  many  years  afterwards, 
ecclesiastical  history  informs  us,  that  he  received  the 
crown  of  martyrdom  at  Rome,  a.d.  63,  during  the  Ne- 
ronian  persecution;  being  crucified  wijth  his  head  down- 
wards. The  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  his  first 
Epistle  were  never  disputed  :  it  was  addressed  to  the  same 
persecuted  Hebrew  Christians  to  whom  Saint  James  and 
Saint  Paul  respectively  wrote  their  letters.  Its  design  is 
partly  to  support  them  under  their  afflictions  and  trials, 
and  also  to  instruct  them  how  to  behave  under  persecution  : 
and,  as  their  character  and  conduct  were  liable  to  be  asper- 
sed and  misrepresented  by  their  enemies,  they  are  e.xhorted 
to  lead  a  holy  life,  that  they  might  stop  the  mouths  of 
their  enemies,  put  their  calumniators  to  shame,  and  win 
others  over  to  their  religion,  by  their  holy  and  Christian 
conversation. 

The  Epistle  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  four 
sections,  exclusive  of  the  introduction  and  conclusion. 

The  Introduction,     (ch.  i.  1,  2.) 

Section  I.  contains  an  exhortation  to  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians to  persevere  steadfastly  in  the  faith,  and  to  maintain  a 
holy  conversation,  amid  ail  their  sufferings  and  persecu- 
tions,    (i.  3—25,  ii.  1— 10.) 

Section  II.  comprises  exhortations,  1.  To  a  holy  con- 
versation in  general,  (ii.  11,  12.)  2.  To  a  particular  dis- 
charge of  their  several  duties,  as  dutiful  siibjects  \o  their 
sovereign,  (13 — 15,)  who  at  this  lime  was  the  ferocious 
Nero;  as  servants  to  their  masters;  (16 — 25;)  and  as 
kusba?ids  to  their  wives,  (iii.  1 — 13.) 

Section  III.  contains  an  exhortation  to  patience, 
submission,  and  to  holiness  of  life,  enforced  by  consider- 
ing the  example  of  Christ,  (iii.  14 — 18,)  and  various 
other  examples  and  affecting  considerations,  (iii.  19 — 22, 
iv.  1—19.) 

Section  IV.  Directions  to  the  ministers  of  the  churches, 


ON  THE  CATHOLIC  EPISTLES.  343 

and  to  the  people,  how  to  behave  towards  each  other.   (7. 
1—11.) 
The  Conclusion,  (v.  12.  14.) 


Section.  IV.— On  the  Second  General  Epistle  of  Peter. 

Though  some  doubts  have  been  entertained  respecting 
the  authenticity  of  this  Epistle,  which  has  been  received 
as  the  genuine  production  of  St.  Peter  ever  since  the 
fourth  century,  except  by  the  Syrian  church,  in  which  it 
is  read  as  an  excellent  book,  though  not  of  canonical 
authority  ;  yet  we  have  the  most  satisfactory  evidence  of 
its  genuineness  and  authenticity.  It  is  cited  or  alluded 
to  by  three  apostolic  fathers,  and  by  another  writer  of  the 
second  century  :  and  though  no  writer  in  the  third  cen- 
tury appears  to  have  cited  it,  yet  ever  since  the  fourth  cen- 
tury it  has  been  recognised  as  a  genuine  and  canonical 
epiw^tle.  It  was  also  addressed  to  Hebrew  Christians  under 
persecution,  and  a  short  time  before  the  apostle's  martyr- 
dom, most  probably  early  in  the  year  65.  This  Epistle  con- 
sists of  three  parts  ;  viz. : 

Pakt  I.  The  Introduction,     (ch.  i.  1,  2.) 

Part  II.  Having  stated  the  blessings  to  which  God  had 
called  them,  the  apostle  exhorts  the  Christians,  who  had 
received  these  precious  gifts,  to  endeavour  to  improve 
in  the  most  substantial  graces  and  virtues,  (i.  3 — 21,  ii,) 
He  then  guards  them  against  scoffers  and  impostors,  who, 
he  foretells,  would  ridicule  their  expectation  of  Christ's 
coming,  (iii.  1 — 14.) 

Part  III.  The  Conclusion,  in  which  the  apostle  de- 
cares  the  agreement  of  his  doctrine  with  that  of  St.  Paul, 
(iii.  15,  16,)  and  repeats  the  sum  of  the  Epistle*  (lii. 
17,  IS.) 


Section  V.— On  the  First  General  Epistle  of  Saint  John. 

The  canonical  authority  of  this  Epistle,  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  written  a.d.  68  or  69,  was  never  ques- 
tioned :  independently  of  historical  or  external  testimony, 


344  ON  THE  CATHOLIC  EPISTLES. 

we  have  the  strongest  internal  evidence  that  this  Epistle 
was  written  by  the  apostle  John,  in  the  very  close  analogy 
of  its  sentiments  and  expressions  to  those  of  his  Gospel. 
Artless  simplicity  and  benevolence,  blended  with  singular 
modesty  and  candour,  together  with  a  wonderful  subli- 
mity of  sentiment,  are  the  characteristics  of  this  Epistle, 
which  is  justly  considered  a  catholic  epistle;  it  being 
written  for  the  use  of  Christians  of  every  denomination 
and  of  every  country,  and  designed  to  guard  them  against 
erroneous  and  licentious  tenets,  and  to  animate  them  to 
communion  with  God  and  a  holy  life.  This  Epistle  con- 
sists of  six  sections,  besides  the  conclusion,  which  is  a 
recapitulation  of  the  whole. 

Sect.  I.  asserts  the  true  divinity  and  humanity  of  Christ,  in  opposition 
to  llie  false  teachers,  and  urges  tlie  union  of  faith  and  hohness  of  life  aa 
absolutely  necessary  to  enable  Christians  to  enjoy  communion  with  God. 
(ch.  i.  1—7.) 

Sect.  2.  shows  that  all  have  sinned,  and  explains  the  doctrine  of  Christ's 
propitiation,  (i.  8—10,  ii.  1,  2.)  Whence  the  apostle  takes  occasion  to 
Illustrate  the  marks  of  true  faith,  viz.:  Obeying  his  connnandmenis,  and 
sincere  love  of  the  brethren  :  and  shows  that  the  love  of  the  world  is  incon- 
sistent with  the  love  of  God.  (ii.  3—17.) 

Sect.  3,  asserts  Jet^us  to  be  the  same  person  with  Christ,  In  opposition  to 
the  false  teachers  who  denied  it.  (ii.  18—29.) 

Sect.  4.  On  the  privileges  of  true  believers,  and  their  consequenthappl- 
ness  and  duties,  and  the  marks  by  which  they  are  known  lo  be  "  ihesons 
of  God."  (iii.) 

Sect.  5.  contains  criteria  by  which  to  distinguish  Antichrist  and  false 
Christians,  with  an  e.xhortulion  lo  brotherly  love,  (iv.) 

Sect.  6,  shows  the  connexion  between  fuilh  in  Christ,  the  being  torn  of 
God,  love  to  God  and  his  children,  obedience  to  his  conimandments,  and 
victory  over  the  world  ;  and  that  Jesus  Christ  is  truly  the  Son  of  God,  able 
to  save  us,  and  to  hear  the  prayers  we  make  for  ourselves  and  others,  (v.  1 
—16.) 

Tlie  conclusion,  which  is  a  summary  of  the  preceding  treatise,  shows 
that  a  sinful  life  is  Inconsistent  with  true  Christianity  ;  asserts  the  divinity 
of  Christ;  and  cautions  believers  against  idolatry,  (v.  17—21. 

The  preceding  is  an  outline  of  this  admirable  Epistle; 
which,  being  designed  to  promote  right  principles  of 
doctrine  and  practical  piety  in  conduct,  abounds,  more 
than  any  book  of  the  New  Testament,  with  criteria 
by  which  Christians  may  soberly  examine  thevisclves 
whether  they  he  in  the  faith.  (2.  Cor.  xiii.  5.) 

Considerable  discussion  has  taken  place  respecting  the 
genuineness  of  the  clause  in  1  John  v.  7,  8.  which  runs 
thus:  "  in  heaven  the  Father,  the  Word  and  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  these  three  are  one.  And  there  are  three 
that  bear  witness  in  earth."  Of  the  evidence  for  and 
against  this  passage  the  author  has  given  a  copious  ab* 


ON  THE  CATHOLIC  EPISTLES.  345 

stract  in  the  fourth  volume  of  his  larger  Introduction 
which  does  not  admit  of  abridgment.  The  humble  reader 
of  the  Bible,  however,  need  not  entertain  any  apprehension 
lest  any  of  the  truths  of  the  true  and  proper  deity  of  our 
Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ  should  be  vvealcened. 
Much  as  has  been  written  on  this  topic,  the  question  can- 
not yet  be  considered  as  decided,  while  it  is  known  that 
many  hundred  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament  still 
remain  uncollated.  Even,  should  it  ultimately  appear  that 
the  disputed  clause  is  spurious,  its  absence  will  not  di- 
minisli  the  weight  of  irresistible  evidence  which  other 
undisputed  passages  of  holy  wri  afford  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity.  "The  proofs  of  our  Lord's  true  and  proper 
Godhead  xem?i\n  unshaken — deduced  from  the  prophetic 
descriptions  of  the  Messiah's  person  in  the  Old  Tesiament 
— from  the  ascription  to  him  of  the  attributes,  the  works, 
and  the  homage,  which  are  peculiar  to  the  Deity — and 
from  those  numerous  and  important  relations,  which  he 
is  affirmed  in  Scripture  to  sustain  towards  his  ho'y  and 
universal  church,  and  towards  each  of  its  true  members."* 


Section  VI.— On  llie  Second  and  Third  Epistles  of  Saint  John. 

Although  some  doubts  were,  in  the  fourth  century, 
entertained  respecting  the  canonical  authority  of  these 
Epistles,  yet  that  point  has  Ions;- been  considered  as  deter- 
mined by  the  fiict  that  these  Epistles  have  been  cited  by 
Christian  writers  of  the  third  century,  as  well  as  by  many 
in  the  ages  immediately  following.  The  similarity  of 
style  also  attests  that  they  are  the  productions  of  the  same 
author  as  the  first  epistle  of  St.  John,  who  probably  wrote 
them  about  a.d.  68  or  69. 

The  SECOND  RPisTLE  is  addressed  to  an  eminent  Chris- 
tian matron,  the  Lady  Electa,  whom  the  apostle  commends 
for  her  virtuous  and  religious  education  of  her  children  ; 
and  who  is  exhorted  to  abide  in  the  doctrine  of  Christ,  to 
persevere  in  the  truth,  and  carefully  to  avoid  the  delusions 
of  false  teachers.     But  chiefly  the  apostle  beseeches  this 

Ecleclic  Review,  vol.  v.  part  i.  p.  249. 


346  ^N  THE  CATHOLIC  EPIETLE& 

Christian  matron  to  practise  the  great  and  indispensable 
commandnient  of  Christian  love  and  charity. 

The  THIRD  EPISTLE  of  St.  John  is  addressed  to  a  con- 
verted Geniile,  a  respectable  member  of  some  Christian 
church,  called  Gaius  or  Caius  :  most  probably  Gaius  of 
Corinth,  (1  Cor.  i,  14,)  whom  St.  Paul  calls  his  "  host, 
and  the  host  of  the  whole  church."  (Rom.  xvi.  23.)  The 
scope  of  this  Epislle  is  to  commend  his  steadfastness  in 
the  faith,  and  his  general  hospitality,  especially  to  the  mi- 
nisters of  Christ ;  to  caution  him  against  the  ambitious  and 
turbulent  practices  of  Diotrephes,  and  to  recommend  De- 
metrius to  his  friendship ;  referring  what  he  further  had 
to  say  to  a  personal  interview. 


Section  VII.— On  the  General  Epistle  of  Jude. 

Jude,  or  Judas,  who  was  surnamed  Thaddeus  and  Leb- 
beus,  and  was  also  called  the  brother  of  our  Lord,  (Matt, 
xiii.  55.)  was  the  son  of  Alpheus,  brother  of  James  the 
Less,  and  one  of  the  twelve  apostles.  We  are  not  inform- 
ed when,  or  how  he  was  called  to  the  apostleship  ;  and 
there  is  scarcely  any  mention  of  him  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, except  in  the  different  catalogues  of  the  twelve 
apostles.  Although  the  epistle  which  bears  his  name, 
was  rejected  in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity,  by  some 
persons,  we  have  satisfactory  evidences  of  its  authenticity  ; 
for  it  is  found  in  all  the  ancient  catalogues  of  the  sacred 
writings  of  the  New  Testament ;  it  is  asserted  to  be  ge- 
nuine by  Christian  fathers  of  the  third  and  following 
centuries  ;  and  independently  of  this  external  evidence, 
the  genuineness  of  the  Epislle  of  St.  Jude  is  confirmed 
by  the  subjects  discussed  in  it,  which  are  in  every  respect 
worthy  of  an  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ.  There  is  great 
similarity  between  this  Epislle  and  the  second  chapter  of 
Si.  Peter's  second  Epistle.  Jude  addressed  his  letter  to 
all  who  had  embraced  the  Gospel ;  its  design  is  to  guard 
them  against  the  false  teachers  who  had  begun  to  insinu- 
ate themselves  into  the  Chrisiian  church  ;  and  to  contend 
with  the  utmost  earnestness  and  zeal  for  the  true  faith, 
against  the  dangerous   tenets  which  they  disseminated, 


ON  THE  REVELATION  OF  ST  JOHN.  347 

resolving  the  whole  of  Christianity  into  a  speculative  be- 
lief and  outward  profession  of  the  Gospel.  And  having 
thus-  cancelled  the  obligations  of  morality  and  personal 
holiness,  they  taught  their  disciples  to  live  in  all  manner  of 
licentiousness,  and  at  the  same  time  flattered  them  with  the 
hope  of  divine  favour,  and  of  obtaining  eternal  life.  The 
vile  characters  of  these  seducers  are  further  shown, 
and  their  sentence  is  denounced ;  and  the  Epistle  con- 
cludes with  warnings,  admonitions,  and  counsels  to  be- 
lievers how  to  persevere  in  faith  and  godliness  them- 
selves, and  to  rescue  others  from  the  snares  of  the  false 
teachers. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ON   THE   REVELATION    OF   ST.    JOHN   THE   DIVINE. 

It  Is  a  remarkable  circumstance  that  the  authenticity 
of  this  book  was  very  generally,  if  not  universally,  ac- 
knowledged during  the  first  two  centuries,  and  yet  in  the 
third  century  it  began  to  be  questioned.  This  seems  to 
have  been  occasioned  by  some  absurd  notions  concerning 
the  Millenium,  which  a  few  well-meaning  but  fanciful 
expositors  grounded  on  this  book  ;  which  notions  their 
opponents  injudiciously  and  presumptuously  endeavoured 
to  discredit,  by  denying  the  authority  of  the  book  itself. 
So  little,  however,  has  this  portion  of  holy  writ  suffered 
from  the  ordeal  of  criticism,  to  which  it  has  in  consequence 
been  subjected,  that,  (as  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has  long  since 
remarked)  there  is  no  other  book  of  the  New  Testament 
so  strongly  attested,  or  commented  upon  so  early,  as  the 
Apocalypse,  or  Revelation  of  Saint  John  ;  for,  besides  the 
strong  internal  evidence  afforded  by  the  similarity  of  its 
style  to  that  of  the  apostle's  other  writings,  we  have  an 
unbroken  scries  of  external,  or  historical  testimony,  from 
the  apostolic  age  downwards.  The  revelations  contained 
in  this  book  were  made  to  Saint  John  during  his  exile  in 
the  isle  of  Patnios,  toward  the  end  of  Domitian's  reign, 
though  the  book  containing  them  could  not  have  been 
published  until  after  his  release,  on  the  emperor's  death, 


9^  ON  THE  REVELATION  OF 

in  the  year  96,  and  after  his  return  to  Ephesus.  The 
year  96  or  97,  may  therefore  be  considered  as  its  true 
date.  The  scope  of  this  book  is  twofold  :  Jirst,  generally 
to  make  known  to  the  apostle  "  the  things  which  are," 
(i.  19,)  that  is,  the  then  present  state  of  the  Christian 
churches  in  Asia  ;  and,  secondly  and  principally,  to  reveal 
to  him  "the  things  which  shall  be  hereafter,"  or  the  con- 
stitution and  fates  of  the  Christian  church,  through  its 
several  periods  of  propnfralion,  corruption  and  amendment, 
from  its  beginning  to  its  consummation  in  glory.  The 
Apocalypse,  therefore,  consists  of  two  principal  divisions, 
or  parts  ;  viz. : 

After  the  title  of  the  book.  (ch.  i.  1—3.) 

Part  I.  contains  the  "  things  which  are — "  that  is,  the 
then  present  state  of  the  church:  it  includes  the  Epistles 
to  the  seven  Asiatic  Churches  of  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Per- 
gamos,  Thyaiira,  Sardis,  Philadelphia,  and  Laodicea.  (i. 
9 — 20,  ii.,  iii.)  These  churches,  in  the  Lydian,  or  Pro- 
consular Asia,  are  supposed  to  have  been  planted  by  the 
apostle  Paul,  and  his  assistants  during  their  ministry. 
They  lie  nearly  in  an  amphitheatre,  and  are  addressed  ac- 
cording to  thfir  geographical  positions,  as  may  be  seen  on 
reference  to  our  Map  of  the  Travels  of  the  Apostles. 
These  seven  Epistles  contain  excellent  precepts  and  ex- 
hortations, commendations  and  reproofs,  promises  and 
threntenings,  which  are  calculated  to  afford  instruction  to 
the  Universal  Church  of  Christ  at  all  times. 

Part  II.  contains  a  Prophecy  of  ''the  things  tvhich 
shall  be  hereafter,'"  or  the  future  state  of  the  church 
through  succeeding  ages,  from  the  time  when  the  apostle 
beheld  the  apocalyptic  visions,  to  the  grand  consummation 
of  all  things,  (ch.  iv. — xxii.) 

Although  many  parts  of  the  Apocalypse  are  necessarily 
obscure  to  us,  because  they  contain  predictions  of  events 
still  future,  yet  enough  is  sufficiently  clear  to  convey  to  us 
the  most  important  religious  instruction.  The  Revelation 
of  St.  John  is  to  us  precisely  what  the  prophecies  of  the 
Old  Testament  were  to  the  Jews,  nor  is  it  in  any  degree 
more  inexplicable.  "  No  prophecies  in  the  Revelation 
can  be  more  clouded  with  obscurity,  than  that  a  child 
should  be  born  of  a  pure  virgin — that  a  mortal  should 
not  see  corruption — that  a  person  despised  and  numbered 


J)^ 


OP  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  349 

among  malefactors  should  be  established  for  ever  on  the 
throne  of  David.  Yet  still  the  pious  Jew  preserved  his 
faith  entire  amidst  all  these  wonderful,  and,  in  appearance, 
contradictory  intimations.  He  looked  into  the  holy  books 
in  which  they  were  contained,  with  reverence,  and  with 
an  eye  of  patient  expectation  *  waited  for  the  consolation 
of  Israel.'  We,  in  the  same  manner,  look  up  to  those 
prophecies  of  the  Apocalypse,  for  the  full  consummation 
of  the  great  scheme  of  the  Gospel ;  when  Christianity 
shall  finally  prevail  over  all  the  corruptions  of  the  world, 
and  be  universally  established  in  its  utmost  purity. "=^ 

•  Gilpin'8  Exposition  of  the  New  Testament,  vol,  ii.  p.  428. 


30 


^ 


APPENDIX. 


353 


No.  II. 
A  TABLE 


OF  THE  ORDER  AND  DATES  OP  THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT, 
AND  OF  THE  PLACES  WHERE  THEY  ARE  SUPPOSED  TO  HAVE  BEEN 
WRITTEN. 


GOSPELS. 

Matthew  (Hebrew)  ) 

(Greek)     \ 

Mark       .... 
Luke  (Gospel) 

(Acts  of  the  Apostles) 

John       .... 


1.  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 

PLACES. 

Judaea 
Rome 
Greece 
Ephesvis     - 

THE  EPISTLES  OF  PAUL 


A.  D. 

S  37  or  38 
■        '         i  61 

-  between  60  and  63 

-    63  or  64 

.    97  0198 


EPISTLES. 

1  Thessalonians 

2  Thessalonians 

Galatians 

1  Corinthians 
Romans 

2  Coiinthi£ins 
Ephesians 
Philippians     • . 
Colossians 
Philemon 

Hebrews 

1  Timothy 
Titus 

2  Timothy      • 


PLACES. 

Corinth  • 
Corinth  • 

Corinth 

Ephesus 

Corinth 


^         Macedonia 
( (perhaps  from  Philippi)  ] 
Rome 


A.  D. 

52 

52 

^  At  the  close  of  52 

(  or  early  in        53 

56 

About  the  end  of  57 

or  the  beginning  of  58 


Rome       -        -   < 

•       Rome 

Rome 

\        Italy 

( (perhaps  from  Rome) 

Macedonia 

Macedonia 

Rome 


58 

61 

Before  the  end  of  62 
or  the  begiiming  of  63 

62 

(  About  the  end  of  62 

(  or  early  in  63 

)   ^  About  the  end  of  62 

S   i  or  early  in  63 

64 

64 


m.  THE  CATHOLIC,  OR  GENERAL  EPISTLES. 


EPISTLES. 

James     ■ 

1  Peter    - 

2  Peter    - 

1  John    - 

2  and  3  John 
Jude 


PLACES. 

Judaea 
Rome 
Rome 
Unknown 


I  (perhaps  Ephesus)  S 
Ephesus 
Unknown 


A.  D. 

61 

.        .        64 

about  the  beginning  of  65 

I     .  \  68 

I  or  early  in  69 

(  63 

( or  early  in  69 

64  or  65 


The  Revelation  of  St.  John 


Ephesus 

30* 


96  or  97 


354  APPENDIX. 

No.  IIL 

A  TABLE 

tr  THE  PSALMS,  CLASSED  ACCORDING  TO  THEIR  SEVERAL  SUBJECTS,  AND  ADAPTBO> 
TO  THE  PURPOSES  OF  PRIVATE  DEVOTION. 

I.  Prayers. 

1.  Prayers  for  pardon  of  sin,  Psal.  vi.  xxv.  rxxviii.  li.  cxxx.  Psalms 
styled  penitential,  vi.  xxxii.  xxxviii.  li.  cii.  cxxx.  cxlii. 

2.  Prayers,  composed  wlien  llie  Psalrnist  was  deprived  of  an  opportu- 
nity of  tiie  public  exercise  of  religion,  Psal.  xlii.  xliii.  ixiii.  ixxxiv. 

3.  Prayers,  in  which  the  Psalmist  seems  extremely  dejected,  though  not 
totally  deprived  of  consolation,  under  his  afflictions,  Psal.  xiii.  xxii.  Ixix. 
ixxvii.  Ixxxviii.  cxliii. 

4.  Prayers,  in  which  the  Psalmist  asks  help  of  God,  in  consideration 
of  his  own  integrity,  and  the  uprightness  of  his  cause,  Psal.  vji.  xvii. 
xxvi.  XXXV. 

5.  Prayers,  expressing  the  firmest  trust  and  confidence  in  God  under 
afflictions,  Psal.  iii.  xvi.  xxvii.  xxxi.  liv.  Ivi.   Ivii.  Ixi.   Ixii.  Ixxi.  ixxxfi.^ 

6.  Prayers,  composed  when  the  people  of  God  were  under  affliction  or 
persecution,  l*sal.  xliv.  ix.  ixxiv.  Ixxix.  Lxxx.  Ixxxiii.  Ixxxix.  xciv.  cii. 
exxiii.  cxxxvii. 

7.  The  following  are  likewise  prayers  in  time  of  trouble  and  affliction, 
Psal.  iv.  v.   xi.  xxviii.  xli.  Iv.  lix.  Ixiv.  Ixx.  cix.  cxx.   cxl.  cxll.  cxlil. 

8.  Prayers  of  intercession,  Psal.  xx.  Ixvii.  cxxii.  cxxxii.  cxliv. 

II.  Psalms  of  Thanksgiving. 

1.  Thanksgivings  for  Mercies  vouchsafed  to  particular  persons,  PsaK 
tx.  xviii.  xxi.  xxx.  xxxiv.  xl.  Ixxv.  ciii.  cviii.  cxvi.  cxviii.  cxxxviii.  cxliv. 

2.  Thanksgivings  for  mercies  vouchsafed  to  the  Israelites  in  general, 
Psal,  xlvi.  xlviii.  Ixv.  Ixvi.  Ixviii.  Ixxvi.  Ixxxi.  Ixxxv.  xcviii.  cv.  cxxiv. 
cxxvl.  cxxix.  cxxxv.   cxxxvi.  cxlix. 

III.  Psalms  of  Praise  and  Adoration ^  displaying  the  Attributes  of  God. 

1.  General  acknowledgments  of  God^  goodness  and  mercy,  and  particu- 
larly his  care  and  protection  of  good  men,  Psal.  xxiii.  xxxiv.  xxxvi.  xci. 
e.  ciii.  cvii.  cxvii.  cxxi.  cxlv.  cxlvi. 

2.  Psalms  displaying  the  power,  majesty,  glory,  and  other  attributes  of 
the  Divine  Being,  Psal.  viii.  xix.  xxiv.  xxix.  xxxiii.  xlvil.  1.  Ixv.  ixvl. 
Ixxvi.  Ixxvii.  xciii.  xcv.  xcvi.  xcvii.  xcix.  civ.  cxL  cxili.  cxiv.  cxv. 
exxxiv.  cxxxix^  cxlvLi.  cxlviii.  cl. 

IV.  Instructive  Psalms, 

1.  The  different  characters  of  good  and  bad  men  :  the  hnpiiinesa  of  tlie 
one,  and  tlie  misery  of  tlie  other  :  are  reprtsented  in  the  f.illnwlng  psalms. 
1  V.  vii.  ix.  X.  xi.  xii.  xiv.  xv.  xvii.  xxiv.  xxv.  xxxii.  xxxiv.  xxxvl.  xxxvil. 
1.  Iii.  liii.  Iviil.  Ixxiii.  Ixxv.  Ixxxiv,  xcl.  xcli.  xciv.  cxii.  cxLx.  cxxL  cxxv, 
cxxvil   cxxviii.  cxxxiiL 

2.  The  cxoclicuce  (if  (Jod's  laws,  Psal.  xix.  cxix. 

3.  The  vanity  of  human  life,  Psal.  xxxix.  xlix.  XC. 

4.  Advice  to  irkagistrutKS,  Pt;(il.  Ixxxii.  ci. 
6»  The  virtue  of  humility,  Psal.  cxxxl. 

V.  Panhns  more  eminently  and  directly  Prophetical. 
Psal.  IL  xvi.  xxU.  xl.  xlv.  Ixviii.  Ixxll.  Ixxxvll.  ex.  cxvUL 

VI.  Uisiorical  Paaliua, 
Psckl.  IxxvUl,  cv.  cvU 


^^^ 


APPENDIX.  355 

No.  IV. 

A  TABLE, 

OR    LIST,    OF    SELECT    CHAPTERS    OF   THE    HOLY     SCRIPTURES^ 

Forming  an  Epitome  of  the  Bible,  and  adapted  to  Family,  or  Private 
Reading. 

B3°°  The  following  arrangement  af  Chapters  from  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures is  not  off'ered  with  a  view  to  supersede  a  regular  and  orderly  peru- 
sal of  the  icord  of  God.  Having  devoted  a  considerable  portion  of  his  life 
to  the  preparation  of  his  larger  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  and  Knowledge 
of  the"  entire  '■^  Holy  Scriptures,"  the  author  trusts  that  he  shall  be  acquit- 
ted of  such  an  intention.  The  present  selection  of  chapters  is  offered,  in 
consequence  of  a  wish  which  he  has  often  heard  expressed,  that  soine  list  were 
extant,  which  should,  in  a  short  compass,  present  the  most  importa7it portions 
of  the  sacred  volume  to  the  attention  of  individuals  possessing  but  little 
leisure  to  make  a  selection  for  themsslves,  and  who  were  desirous  of  be- 
coming acquainted  tcith  the  leading  facts,  doctrines,  and  precepts  of  the 
Bible.  Tlie  author  tcill  rejoice  if  his  attempt  shall  lead  any  one  to  a  more 
frequent  and  attentive  study  of  that  holy  volume.  To  aity  of  his  readers, 
who  may  be  desirous  of  2ierusing  the  entire  Scriptures  in  chronological 
order,  (and  who  may  be  able  to  purchase  them,)  he  can  with  confidence 
recommend  the  Rev.  George  Tow nsend's  four  volumes  an  the  Harmony  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 


Part  I. — A  Selection  of  Chapters,  forming  a  Series  of  the  Sacred  History 
of  the  Old  Testament. 


Section 

1.  An  Accovmt  of  the  Origin  of  the  World  and  of  the  six  days'  Creation, 

chap  i.,  ii.  1—6. 

2.  A  more  particular  Account  of  the  Creation  of  Man.    Tlie  Garden  of 

Eden  described.    The  Formation  of  Woman  and  Infititution  of  Mar- 
riage, chap.  ii.  7 — 24. 
S.  The  Fall  of  Man.    The  first  Promise  of  the  Redeemer.    Expulsion  of 
Adam  and  Eve  from  Paradise,  chap.  ii.  25,  iii. 

4.  The  Birth  of  Cain  and  Abel.    Murder  of  Abel.    History  of  other  de- 

scendants of  Adam  to  Laraech,  chap.  iv. 

5.  Genealogy  of  the  Patriarchs  from  Adam  to  Noah,  chap.  v. 

6.  The  hicrease  of  Wickedness  in  the  World.     The  Deluge  threatened. 

Noah  commanded  to  prepare  the  Ark,  chap.  vi. 

7.  Noah  and  his  Family  enter  the  Ark.    Account  of  the  Destruction  of 

the  former  World  by  the  Deluge,  chap.  vii. 

8.  The  Waters  subside.    Noah  and  his  Family  quit  the  Ark.    History  of 

the  Renovation  of  the  World,  chap.  viii. 

9.  The  Covenant  of  God  with  Noah.    His  intoxication,  chap,  t^ 

10.  The  erection  of  the  Tower  of  Babel  attempted.    The  confusion  of 

Tongues,  and  the  dispersion  of  Mankind,  chap.  xi. 

11.  The  call  of  Abraham.    He  goes  into  Egypt,  chap.  xii. 

12.  Abraham  and  Lot  retiarn  from  Egj'pt  aaid  separate^  chap.  xiii. 


356  APPENDIX. 

Section 

13.  Abraham  blessed  by  Melchizedek,  King  of  Salem,  chap.  xiv. 

14.  God  renews  his  promises  to  Aljraham,  chap.  xvil. 

15.  Three  Angels  visit  Abraham.    Uis  Intercession  for  Sodom  and  Go- 

morrah, chap,  xviii. 

16.  The  Destruction  of  t^odom  and  Gomorrah,  chap.  xlx.  1 — 26. 

17.  Abraham  commanded  to  sacrifice  his  only  Son,  Isaac.    He  prepares 

to  obey,  and  receives  the  divine  benediction,  chap.  xxii.  1 — 19. 

18.  Isaac  marries  Rebekah,  chap.  xxiv. 

19.  The  Birth  of  Esau  and  Jacob.    Esau  despises  his  birthright,  chap. 

XXV.  20—34. 

20.  The  Promise  of  God  to  Isaac,  chap.  xxvl.  1—6. 

21.  Jacob  surreptitiously  obtains  Isaac's  blessing,  chap,  xxvll.  1 — 40. 

22.  Esau  menaces  Jacob.    The  marriage  of  Esau.     Jacob's  vision  at 

Beth-el,  and  his  vow,  chap,  xxvii.  41 — 46,  xxviii. 

23.  Jacob  entertained  by  Laban.     His  Marriage,  chap.  xxix. 

24.  Joseph  sold  into  Egypt,  chap,  xxxvii. 

25.  The  Imprisonment  of  Jo.seph  by  Poliphar,  chap,  xxxix. 

26.  Joseph,  in  prison,  interprets  the  dreams  of  Pharaoh's  chief  Baker  and 

chief  Butler,  chap.  xj. 

27.  The  deliverance  of  Joseph.    His  advancement  in  the  court  of  Pha- 

raoh, chap.  xli. 

28.  The  first  journey  of  Joseph's  Brethren  into  Egj'pt,  to  buy  corn,  chap. 

xlii. 

29.  Jacob  persuaded  to  send  Benjamin  into  Egj^pt.    Joseph  entertains  his 

Brethren,  cliap.  xliii. 

30.  Joseph  malves  himself  known  to  his  Brethren,  chap,  xliv,,  xlv. 

31.  Jacob  settles  in  Egypt  with  his  family,  chap.  xlvi. 

32.  Joseph  presents  certain  of  his  Brethren  unto  Pharaoh.— His  admi- 

nistration in  Egypt,  chap,  xlvii.  1—26. 

33.  Jacob's  last  days.— He  is   visited  by  Joseph,   whose  children  he 

blesses,  chap,  xlvii.  27—31,  xlviii. 

34.  Jacob's  Prophetic  Benediction  of  his  Children,  chap.  xlix. 

35.  The  Burial  of  Jacob.    Death  and  Burial  of  Joseph,  chap.  L 

EXODUS. 

36.  The  Oppression  of  the  Children  of  Israel  by  Rameses  Miamomi,  the 

King  who  knew  neither  Joseph  nor  his  services,  chap.  I. 

37.  The  Birth  aiid  Preservation  of  Moses.     His  flight  into  Midlan,  chap. 

li. 

38.  God  appears  unto  Moses,  and  calls  him  to  be  the  deliverer  of  the  to- 

raelite.s,  chap,  ill.,  iv. 

39.  Moses  and  Aaron  apply  to  Pharaoh,  in  the  name  of  God,  and  on  be- 

half of  the  Israelites,  chap.  v. 

40.  God  renews  his  promise  of  deliverance  to  the  Israelites,  chap,  vl, 

1  —  12. 

41.  The  interview  of  Moses  with  Pharaoh.     The  first  plague,  chap.  vll. 

42.  Pharaoh  hardens  his  heart.    The  second,  third,  and  fourth  plagues, 

chap.  viil. 

43.  The  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  plagues,  chap.  Ix. 

44.  The  eighth  and  ninth  plagues,  chap.  x. 

45.  The  Death  of  iht?  First  horn  threatened,  chap.  Xl. 

46.  The  Institution  of  the  Passover.    The  Departure  of  Israel  from  Egypt, 

chnp.  xil. 

47.  The  Israelites'  miraculous  passage  of  the  Red  Sea.    Pharaoh  and  his 

army  drowned,  chap.  xlv. 

48.  The  Song  of  Mo.ses,  for  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites.     The  bitter 

waters  of  Marah  sweetened,  chnp.  xv. 
40.  The  Israelites  nilrnculously  fed  in  the  Desert,  chnp.  xvl. 
60,  Their  murmurs  at  Rcphkllni,     Water  miraculously  given  them  from 

the  rock  at  Horeb,  chap,  xvll. 


APPENDIX.  357 

Section 

51.  The  Arrival  of  Moses'  wife  and  children  with  Jethro.    The  counsel 

given  by  the  latter  to  Moses,  chap,  xviii. 

52.  Tlie  preparation  of  the  Israelites  for  renewing  their  covenant  with 

God,  chap.  xix. 

53.  Tlie  Promulgation  of  the  Moral  Law,  chap.  xx. 

54.  Moses  called  to  ascend  Mount  Sinai.    Tlie  Covenant  ratified,  chap. 

XX  iv. 

55.  The  people  request  Aaron  to  make  the  Golden  Calf.    The  Punish- 

ment of  the  Idolaters,  chap,  xxxii. 

56.  Moses  removes  his  tent  from  the  camp.    The  people  mourn,  chap. 

xxxiii. 

57.  The  Tables  of  the  Law  renewed.    Various  instructions  given  to 

Moses,  chap,  xxxiv. 


5S.  Moses  despatches  Spies  into  the  land  of  Canaan,  chap.  xiii. 

59.  The  murmurs  of  the  people.    Joshua's  attempt  to  pacify  them,  chap. 

xiv. 

60.  The  Rebellion  and  Punishment  of  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram,  and 

their  associates;  chap,  xvi. 

DEUTERONOMY, 

61.  Discourse  of  Moses  to  the  Israelites,  relating  the  events  that  teok 

place  in  the  wilderness  from  their  leaving  ftlount  Horeb,  until  their 
arrival  at  Kadesh,  chap.  i. 

62.  Renewal  of  the  Covenant  with  the  People  of  Israel,  chap.  xxix. 

63.  Promises  of  Pardon  to  the  Penitent.     Good  and  evil  set  before  them, 

ciiap.  XXX. 

64.  Joshua  appointed  to  be  the  successor  of  Moses.    A  solemn  charge 

given  to  him,  chap.  xxxi.  1 — 27. 

65.  Tlie  people  convened  to  hear  the  prophetical  and  historical  Ode  of 

Moses,  chap.  xxxi.  28—30.  xxxii. 

66.  Moses'  Prophetic  Blessing  of  the  twelve  Tribes.    Their  peculiar  feli- 

city and  privilege  in  having  the  Lord  for  their  God  and  Protector^ 
cliap.  xxxiii. 

67.  The  Death  and  Burial  of  Moses,  chap,  xxxiv. 


63.  The  Call  and  Appointment  of  Joshua  to  be  Captain-General  of  the 
people  of  God,  chap.  i. 

69.  The  Miraculous  Passage  of  the  Israelites  over  Jordan,  and  the  setting 

up  of  twelve  memorial  stones,  chap,  iii.,  iv. 

70.  Joshua,  stricken  in  years,  gives  his  first  charge  to  the  people  of 

Israel,  chap,  xxiii, 

71.  Joshua's  second  charge  to  the  Israelites,  chap.  xxiv. 

JUDGES. 

72.  The  people  chastised  for  their  sins.    Judges  raised  up.    Their  admi- 

nistration, chap.  ii. 

1    SAMUEL. 

73.  The  Birth  of  Samuel,  chap.  i. 

74.  The  Hymn  of  Hannah.    Depraved  conduct  of  Eli's  Sons,  chap.  il. 

75.  The  call  of  Samuel,  and  his  establishment  in  the  Prophetic  Office^, 

chap.  iii. 

76.  The  Israelites  demand  a  king,  chap.  viii. 

77.  Saul  anointed  king,  chap,  ix.,  x. 
7S»  Saul  rejected  by  God,  chap,  xiii. 


358  APPENDIX. 

Section 

79.  The  anointing  of  David  to  be  king  over  Israel,  chap.  rvl. 

80.  David's  Combat  and  Victory  over  Goliath,  chap.  xvii.  1—54. 

81.  Saul's  Life  in  David's  power,  m  the  cave  at  Engedi,  who  magnani- 

mously spares  it,  chap.  xxiv. 

82.  David  spares  the  Life  of  Saul  a  second  time,  chap,  xxvl, 

83.  The  suicide  of  Saul,  after  his  total  discomfituie  by  Uie  Philistines, 

chap.  XX xi. 

2   SAMUEL. 

84.  David  anointed  king  over  Israel.    His  victories,  chap.  v. 

So.  The  Bringing  up  of  the  Ark  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  Divine  Promises 

made  to  him,  chap,  vi.,  vii. 
8G.  The  Sin  and  Uepeutancc  of  David,  chap,  xi.,  xii. 

87.  David's  Psalm  of  Praise,  on  a  general  review  of  the  mercies  of  his 

life,  and  of  the  many  deliverances  he  had  experienced,  chap.  xxii. 

1    KfNGS. 

88.  The  death  of  David,  and  Accession  of  Solomon,  chap.  11. 

89.  The  commencement  of  Solomon's  Reign,  chap.  iii. 

90.  The  Dedication  of  the  Temple,  and  tlie  .Sublime  Prayer  of  Solomon 

on  that  occasion,  chap.  viii. 

91.  Divine  Vision  to  Solomon.     Ilis  Opulence  and  Commerce,  chap,  ix. 

92.  The  death  of  Solomon,  and  accession  of  Rchoboam,  chap.  xi. 

93.  The  Revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes  under  Jeroboam,  who  forms  the  King- 

dom of  Israel,  chap.  xll. 

94.  The  Reigns  of  Rehoboam  king  of  Judah,  and  of  Jeroboam  king  of 

Israel,  chap.  .xlv. 

95.  The  Reign   of  Ahab,   against  whom  Elijah  prophesieth.    Miracles 

wrought  by  the  Prophet,  chap,  xvii, 

96.  Tlie  Prophets  of  Baal  slahi,  chap,  xviil. 

97.  Elijah's  Flight  to  Horeb.    Transactions  there,  chap.  xix. 

2   KINGS. 

9S.  The  translation  of  Elijah,  chap.  ii. 

99.  Miracles  wrought  Ijy  hi.s  successor,  Ellsha,  chap,  iv, 

l(»0.  The  Healing  of  Naaman,  and  punishment  of  Gehazi,  chap,  v, 

101.  Miracle  wrought  by  Elisha.  The  Syrian  army  smitten  with  blindneas. 

chap.  vl. 

102.  Uoshea,  the  last  king  of  Israel,  dethroned  by  Shalmaneser,  ajid  the 

Israelites  carried  (viptive  into  Assyria,  chap.  xvi. 

103.  The  reign  of  Ilt/.ikiali.     Ilis  danger  from  Sennacherib's  besieging 

Jerusalem,  chap,  xvii, 

104.  1  he  deliverance  of  Ilezekiah,  chap  xix. 

10.').  The  pious  rei!?n  of  Josiah,  chap,  xxll.,  xxlii.  1—30. 

100,  The  reigns  of  Jehoahaz,   Jehoiakim,  Jehoiachin,  and  Zedeklah,  the 

last  kings  of  Judah,  chap,  xxlll.  31—37.  xxlv, 
107.  Rehellion  of  Zcdekiah  against  Nebuchadnezzar.    Jerusalem  taken; 

the  temple  burnt;  and  Uie  Jews  carried  into  captivity  to  Babylon 

chap.  XXV. 


108.  Edict  of  Cyrus,  permitting  the  Jews  to  return  into  Juda-a  and  rebuild 

the  t<;mple,  chap.  i. 

109.  Tl>e  l)uii(llng  of  tiie  second  temple  commenced,  but  hindered  by  the 

Haniarltuns,  chap.  ill.  iv. 

110.  EdUi  of  Darius  in  favour  of  the  Jews.    The  temple  finished  and  de- 

dicated, chap,  v.,  tL 


APPENDIX.  359 


Section 

111.  Haman,  prime  minister  of  Ahasuerus,  from  motives  of  hatred  to- 

warrls  Mordecai,  forms  a  plan  to  massacre  the  Jews  throughout 
Persia,  chap.  iii. 

112.  Esther,  the  niece  of  Mordecai,  apprises  the  king  of  Ilaman's  sangui- 

nary design,  chap.  vii. 

113.  The  Advancement  of  Mordecai.    The  deliverance  of  the  Jews,  chap. 

vni.,  ix.,  X. 


114.  Ezra  the  priest  returns  to  Jerusalem  with  a  commission  from  Arta- 

xerxes  Longimanus,  king  of  Persia,  in  favour  of  the  Jews,  chap.  vii. 

NEHESUAH. 

115.  Departure  of  Nehemiah  for  Jerusalem,  with  a  royal  commission,  in 

favour  of  The  Jews,  chap.  ii. 

116.  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple  being  rebuilt,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  con- 

vene the  people,  to  hear  the  law  read,  chap.  viii. 


Part  II.— A  Selection  of  Chapters,  forming  a  series  of  the  Gospel  History 

Section 

1.  The  Birth  of  John  the  Baptist  and  of  Jesus  Christ  announced.  Luke 

i.  1—56. 

2.  John  the  Baptist  born.    The  prophetic  hymn  of  Zacharias,  Luke  i. 

57—80. 

3.  Tlie  Nativity  and  Infancy  of  Jesus  Christ,  Luke  ii. 

4.  The  Arrival  of  the  Wise  Men  from  the  East  to  adore  Jesus  Christ, 

Matt.  ii. 

5.  The  Ministry  of  John  the  Baptist.    The  Baptism  of  Christ,  Luke  iii. 

6.  The  Temptation  of  Jesus  Christ.    He  beginneth  to  preach,  Matt.  iv. 

1—17. 

6.  Christ  preacheth  at  Nazareth.    Various  Miracles  wrought  by  Christ. 

Luke'iv.  14—44. 

7.  Testimony  of  John  the  Baptist  to  Jesus  Christ,  Jolin  i. 

8.  Christ's  Miracle  at  Cana  in  Galilee,  John  ii. 

9.  His  Conversation  with  Nicodemus,  John  iii. 

10.  His  Discourse  with  the  Woman  of  Samaria,  John  iv. 

11.  Peter,  James,  John,  and  Matthew  become  Christ's  stated  disciples, 

Luke  V. 

12.  Jesus  Christ  heals  a  Paralytic  at  the  Pool  of  Bethesda,  John  v. 
1.3.  The  twelve  Apostles  appointed,  Luke  vi. 

14.  Christ's  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  Matt.  v. — vii, 

§  1.  Who  only  are  truly  happy.  The  duty  of  Christians  to  be 
exemplary,  Matt.  v.  1 — 16, 

§  2.  The  design  of  Christ's  coming;  viz.:  to  ratify  the  divine 
law,  V.  17—20,  which  had  been  much  impaired  by  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  Pharisees.     1.  In  respect  of  its  exte.nt  :   this  is 

exemplified  in  what  concerns  Murder,  21—26  ;  Adultery,  27 

30;  Divorce,  31,  32;  Oaths,  33—37;  Retaliation,  38—42;  the 
Love  of  our  Neighbour,  43 — 48.  2.  In  respect  of  motive: 
where  the  end  is  applause,  the  virtue  is  destroyed.  This  is  ex- 
emplified in  Almsgiving,  vi,  1—4;  Prayer,  5 — 15;  and  rast- 
ing,  16—18. 

§  3.  Heavenly  Mindedness  enforced  by  various  considerations, 
vi.  19—34. 


300  APPENDIX. 

Section 

§  4.  CBLUtlonaBigdAnstrash  judgments  of  others,  vil.  1—5;  various 
admonitions,  6 — 14;  warnings  against /a/se  teachers,  who  eire 
commonly  known  by  their  actions,  15—20;  the  wisdom  of  ad- 
ding practice  to  knowledge,  and  the  insignificancy  of  the  latter 
without  the  former,  21—29. 

15.  Jesus  Christ  heals  the  Centurion's  Servant,  and  restores  to  life  the 

Widow's  Son  at  Nain,  Luke  vii.  1—17. 

16.  Christ's  reply  to  the  inquiry  of  John  the  Baptist's  Disciples,  and  hia 

discourse  to  the  people  concerning  John,  Luke  vii.  18—36. 

17.  Christ  pardons  a  woman  who  had  been  a  sinner,  Luke  vii.  36—50. 

18.  The  parable  of  the  Sower.     Who  are  Christ's  Disciples,  Luke  viil. 

1—21. 

19.  Christ  stills  a  tempest  by  his  command,  and  heals  a  demoniac  at  Ga- 

dara,  Luke  viii.  22 — 39. 

20.  Christ  cures  an  issue  of  blood,  and  raises  the  daughter  of  Jairusto  life, 

Luke  viii.  40 — 56. 

21.  Christ  heals  a  paralytic  and  two  blind  men,  Matt.  ix. 

22.  The  Mission  of  the  Apostles.    Five  thousand  men  miraculously  fed, 

Luke  ix.  1—27. 

23.  Christ  feedeth  five  thousand  men.    Peter's  confession,  John  vl. 

24.  Christ  performs  various  miracles,  Matt.  xv. 

25.  Christ  foretells  his  death  and  resurrection,  Matt.  xvi. 

26.  The  transfiguration  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  miracle  which  followed 

it,  Matt.  xvil. 

27.  The  Mission  of  the  Seventy  Disciples,  Luke  x.  1—24. 

28.  The  Parable  of  the  benevolent  Samaritan.    Christ  visits  Martha  and 

Mary,  Luke  x.  25—42. 

29.  Jesus  goes  to  Jerusalem  to  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  John  vii. 

30.  Jesus  Christ  teaches  in  the  Temple,  John  viii. 

31.  Christ  heals  a  man  who  had  been  born  blind,  John  ix. 

32.  Insimctions  concerning  Prayer.  The  Scribes  and  Pharisees  reproved. 

Luke  xi. 

33.  Cautions  against  hypocrisy.    The  Care  of  Divine  Providence,  Luke 

xii.  1—34. 

34.  Admonition  to  be  prepared  for  Death,  Luke  xii.  35 — 48. 

35.  Christ  reproacheth  the  people  for  not  knowing  the  time  of  Messiah's 

coming.     Cumrnon  reason  sufficient  to  teach  men  repentance,  Luke 
xii.  49—59. 
6.  Design  of  God's  Judgments.     An  Infirm  woman  healed.     Parable  of 
the  Mustard-seed,  which  prophetically  represents  the  spread  of  the 
Gospel,  Lukexiii.  1—20. 

37.  Christ's  journey  to  Jerusalem  to  keep  the  Feast  of  Dedication.    His 

lamentation  over  the  judicial  blindness  of  Jerusalem,  Luke  xlii. 
22—35. 

38.  A  dropsical  man  healed  on  the  Sabbath-day.    The  parable  of  the 

great  Supper,  Luke  xiv.  1—24. 

39.  Courage  and  perseverance  shown  to  be  requisite  in  a  true  Christian. 

The  unprofitableness  of  an  unsound  Christian,  Luke  xiv.  25—35. 

40.  Christ  illustrates  the  joy  of  the  angels  in  heaven  over  repenting  Sin- 

ners, Ijy  the  Parables,  1.  Of  the  lost  sheep,  Luke  xv.  1—7  ;  2.  Of  iJie 
lost  piece  of  monnj,  8—10  ;  and,  3.  Of  the  Prodigal  Son,  11—32. 

41.  Parable  of  the  Unjust  Steward.     The  Pharisees  reproved  for  their 

hypocrisy  and  cov<aousness,  Luke  xvi.  1  — IS. 

42.  The  I'aralileof  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  Luke  xvi.  19—31. 

43.  The  duly  of  not  giving  offence.    Ten  lei)er8  healed,  Luke  xvll.  1 — 19. 

44.  Christ  discourses  concerning  his  second  coming,  Luke  xvii.  20—37. 

45.  Encourogement  to  pfrseverance  in  prayer,  lllustrul»;d  by  the  parable 

of  llif.  Importunate  Widow.     I'arable  of  tliu  Pharisee  and  Publican, 
or  Tax-gulhercr,  Luke  xvlll.  1  —  14. 

46.  Christ  encourages  young  children  to  he  brought  In  him  ;  again  fore- 

tells his  deutli ;  and  cures  a  blind  man  near  Jericho,  Luke  xvlll. 
15-42. 


APPENDIX.  361 

Section 

47.  Parable  of  the  Labourers  in  the  vineyard.    Humility  Inculcated. 
Two  blind  men  receive  their  sight,  Matt.  xx. 
•  48.  The  Resurrection  of  Lazarus,  John  xi.  41—44. 

49.  Account  of  the  different  effects  produced  by  this  miracle  on  the  Jews, 

Johnxi.  45—57,  xii   1—11. 

50.  The  Conversion  of  Zaccheus,  Luke  xix.  1 — 10. 

51.  Parable  of  the  nobleman  going  into  a  distant  country  to  receive  a 

kingdom,  Luke  xi.Y.  1 1  —28. 

52.  Christ's  lowly,  yet  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem.     He  weeps  over 

her  impending  calamities,  and  expels  the  traders  out  of  the  temple, 
where  he  teaches  the  people,  Luke  xix.  29 — 48. 

53.  Christ  confutes  the  chief-priesis,  scribes,  and  elders,  1;  By  a  question 

concerning  the  baptism  of  John,  Luke  xx.  1—8  ;  2.  By  the  Parable 
of  the  Labourers  in  the  vineyard,  9 — 19;  and,  3.  By  showing  the 
lawfulness  of  paying  tribute  unto  Caesar,  20 — 26. 

54.  The  Sadducees  and  ricribes  severally  confuted.     The  Charity  of  a 

poor  widow  commended,  Luke  xx.  27 — 47,  xxi.  1 — 4. 

65.  Christ  discourses  on  the  destruction  of  the  temple;  and  enforces  the 

duty  of  watchfulness,  Luke  xxi.  5—38. 

66.  Christ's  Prophetic  Discourse  concerning  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 

and  the  end  of  the  World,  Matt.  xxiv. 
57.  Parables  of  the  Ten  Virgins,  and  of  the  Talents.     The  last  Judgment 
described.  Matt.  xxv. 

68.  Christ  washes  his  apostle's  feet;  predicts  the  treachery  of  Judas,  and 

Peter's  denial,  John  xiii. 

69.  Christ  celebrates  the  passover;   institutes  the  Lord's  Supper;   and 

again  warns  Peter  that  he  would  deny  him,  Luke  xxii.  I — 38. 

60.  Christ's  last  discourse  with  his  disciples,  John  xiv. — xvi. 

61.  Christ's  last  prayer  for  his  disciples,  and  for  all  who  in  future  ages 

should  believe  in  him,  John  xvii. 

62.  Judas  betrays  Jesus;  who  retires  to  the  garden  of  Gethsemane. 

Peter's  denial  of  Christ,  who  is  arraigned  before  Pilate,  John  xviii. 

63.  Christ  condennied  and  crucitied,  Luke  xxiii. 

64.  The  Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ,  Matt,  xxviii.  1 — 15. 

65.  Christ  appears  to  two  disciples  on  their  way  to  Emmaus,  Luke  xxiV. 

13—35  ;  and  also  to  the  assembled  disciples,  36 — 48.  The  Ascension 
of  Christ,  49—53. 

THE  ACTS    OP  THE   APOSTLES. 

66.  The  transactions  before  and  after  Christ's  ascension  into  heaven. 

Matthias  elected  an  apostle,  chap.  i. 

67.  The  Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  the  Apostles  on  the  day  of  Pen- 

tecost, and  Peter's  discourse  to  the  people  in  consequence  of  it, 
chap.  ii. 

68.  Peter  and  John  heal  a  lame  man.    Peter's  discourse  to  the  people, 

chap.  iii. 

69.  A  great  multitude  converted  by  the  preaching  of  Peter.     The  apos- 

tles are  put  in  prison,  and  released,  chap.  iv.  1 — 32. 

70.  Unanimity   of  the  first  Christians ;   their  charity.    Hypocrisy   and 

punishment  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira,  chap.  iv.  33—37,  v.  I — 11, 
7L  The  apostles  being  imprisoned,  are  released  by  an  angel.    Gamaliel's 
counsel  concerning  them,  chap.  v.  12 — 42. 

72.  Seven  persons  chosen  to  superintend  the  distribution  of  alms,  chap. 

vi.  1—8. 

73.  Stephen   falsely   accused.    His  discourse,     He  is    condemned   and 

stoned,  chap.  vi.  9 — 15,  to  viii.  1,  first  clause  of  the  verse. 

74.  Persecution  of  the  Christians  at  Jerusalem.     A  church  planted  at 

Samaria,  chap.  viii.  1,  and  at  that  time,  &c.  2 — 25. 

75.  Conversion  of  the  Ethiopian  Eunuch,  chap.  viii.  26—40 

76.  Conversion,  baptism,  and  first  preaching  of  Saint  Paul,  chap.  ix. 

1-31. 

31 


362  APPENDIX. 

Section 

77.  Peter  heals  iEneas,  and  raises  Dorcas  to  life,  chap.  ix.  32.  43. 

78.  Peter  instructed  by  a  vision  concerning  the  calling  of  llie  CJentlles. 

Tlie  conversation  of  Cornelius  and  his  family,  chap,  x.,  xi.  1 — 18. 

79.  The  first  Gentile  Church  founded  at  Anlioch,  cliap.  xi.  19—30. 

80.  The  apostle  James  put  to  deatli  by  Herod  Agrippa.     His  miserable 

death,  chap.  xil. 

81.  The  planting  of  several  churches  In  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  at  Perga,  in 

Pamphilia,  and  Antioch,  in  Pisidia,  chap.  xiii. 

82.  The  gospel  preached  at  Iconium,  Lystra,  and  Derbe.     Paul  returns  to 

Antioch,  chap.  xiv. 

83.  Discussion  of  the  question  by  the  apostles  at  Jeinisalem,  concerning 

the  necessity  of  circumcision,  and  observing  the  law.    Their  letter 
to  the  churches  on  this  subject,  chap.  xv.  1 — 3.'5. 

84.  Paul's  second  departure  from  Antioch.     He  preaches  the  gospel  In 

various  countries,  particularly  at  Philippi,  in  .Macedonia.     Thecon- 
version  of  the  Phiiippian  gaoler,  chap.  xv.  36—41,  xvi. 

85.  The  journeys  and  apostolical  labours  of  Paul,  and  his  associates,  at 

Thessalonica,  Berea,  and  Aiherre.     His  masterly  apology  before  the 
court  of  the  Areopagites,  chap.  xvll. 

86.  Paul's  journey  to  Corinth,  and  thence  to  Antioch,  chap,  xviii.  1 — 22. 

87.  Paul's  third  departure  from  Antioch.     Consequences  of  his  pi  caching 

at  Ephesus,  chap,  xviii.  23—28,  xix. 

88.  The  labours  of  Paul  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.    His  journey  toward 

Jerusalem,  chap.  xx. 

89.  On  his  arrival  at  Jerusalem  Paul  relates  the  fruits  of  his  ministry, 

chap.  xxi. 

90.  The  Jews  demanded  the  death  of  Paul,  who  plead*  his  privilege  as  a 

Roman  ciiizen,  chap.  xxil. 

91.  Paul  pleads  his  cause  before  the  council.     A  conspiracy  la  formed 

against  his  life.     He  is  sent  to  Csesarea,  chap,  xxili, 
92-  Paul  accused  before  Felix,  pleads  his  own  cause.     Effects  of  his 
pruachinij  upon  the  conscience  of  Felix,  chap.  xxiv. 

93.  Paul  pleads  bis  cause  before  Festus,  the  successor  of  Felix.     His  in- 

nucence  admitted  by  llie  Roman  Governor,  ciiap.  xxv. 

94.  Paul's  defence  before  king  Agrippa,  chap.  xxvl. 

9B.  Narrative  of  Paul's  Voyage  from  Caesarea.    He  Is  shipwrecked  on 

the  isle  of  IMalta,  chap,  xxvii. 
96.  His  voyage  from  Malta  to  Rome,  where  he  preaches  the  Gospel  to 

the  Jews,  and  resides  for  two  years,  chap,  xxvui. 


Part  HI.— Select  Chapters  taken  from  the  Apostolic  Epistles. 

Section 

1.  The  blessed  consequences  of  our  Justification  by  Jesus  Christ,  Rom.  v. 

2.  Euloglum  and  Description  of  Charity,  1  Cor.  xiii. 

3.  The   Resurrection  of   Jesus  Christ.— Victory   over  death   and    ^\u, 

1  Cor.  XV. 

4.  A  Future  Life.— The  love  of  Christ,  2  Cor.  v. 

5.  Spiritual  blt-Hsings  in  Christ  Ji^sus,  Eph.  I. 

C.  Varlou.s  Duties  of  the  Clui.stlan  Life.  Eidi.  Iv.— Vl. 

7.  Exhortation.s  to  Christian  Hollnes-s  Phil.  Iv. 

8.  The  exc'liftuce  of  C;o(llines.'<,  1  Tim.  vl. 

9.  The  supreme  Dclty  and  Disunity  of  Jesus  Christ,  his  superiority  to 

angels,  and  our  duly  In  conscciuence,  Heb.  I.,  II.  1 — 4. 
10.  Exhortations  to  perseverance.  Heb.  xil. 
n.  Exhortations  and  Cautions,  Jamea  ▼. 


APPENDIX.  363 

Section 

12.  Exhortation  to  steadfastness  in  tlie  faitli  of  Christ,  from  a  considera- 

tion of  the  peculiar  blessings  and  privileges  conferred  by  Christ, 
1  Pet.  i.,  ii.  1—10. 

13.  Exhoriatiou  to  various  civil  and  relative  duties,  1  PeL  ii..ll— 25, 

iii.  1—13. 
11.  The  hope  and  conduct  of  a  Christian,  2  Pet.  i. 

15.  Tiie  second  advent  of  Christ,  2  Pet.  iii. 

16.  Tiie  Love  of  God  opposed  to  that  of  the  world,  1  John  iii. 

17.  Exlioriaiion  to  Brotherly  Love,  1  John  iv. 


No.  V. 


List,  comprising  the  most  necessary  works  upon  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, which  the  author  trusts  will  be  found  sufficient  for  all  ordi- 
nary purposes  of  study. 

D'Allemand's  Edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible. 

Rev.  E.  Valpy's  Edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  with  Notes.  In 
3  vols.  8vo. 

Vetus  Tcstamentum  GrsEcum  (Valpy's  Edition,)  8vo. 

Holy  Bible,  with  marginal  renderings  and  references,  8vo. 

Rev,  Geo.  Townsend's  Harmony  of  the  Old  Testament,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Harmony  of  the  New  Testament,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Introduction  to  the  Critical  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures.    By  the  author  of  this  volume,  4  vols.  8vo. 

Professor  Lee's    Lectures  on  the  Hebrew  Language,  8vo. ;  or, 

Mr.  Yeates's  Hebrew  Grammar,  8vo. 

Gibb's  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon,  8vo ;  or, 

Parkhurst's  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon,  8vo. 

Greek  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  edited  by  the 

Rev.  H.  J.  Rose. 

Winer's  Greek  Grammar  of  the  New  Testament,  8vo. 

Robinson's  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament, 
8vo.  ;  or, 

Wahl's  Clavis  Philologica  Novi  Testament! 

Rev.  Dr.  D'Oyly's  and  Bp.  Mant's  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  3  vols, 
4to. 

Rev.  Matthew  Henry's,  or  Rev.  Tho.  Scott's  Commentary  on  the 
Bible,  each  6  vols.  4to.,  and  Rev.  W.  Burkitt's  Expository  Notes, 
&c.  on  the  New  Testament,  will  be  found  particularly  useful  for 
practical  and  expository  study. 

Bp.  Home's  Commentary  on  the  Psalms,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Rev.  Messrs.  Elsley's  and  Slade's  Aimotations  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 5  vols.  Svo. 

Rev.  S.  T.  Bloomfield's  Recensio  Synoptica  Annotationis  Sacrae,  &c. 
7  vols.  Svo. 

Rev.  Dr.  Doddridge's  Family  Expositor,  6  vols.  Svo. 

Rev.  Dr.  Robinson's  Biblical  and  Ecclesiastical  Dictionary,  8vo. 

Dr.  Harris's  Natural  History  of  the  Bible,  Svo. 

Rev.  Geo.  Holden's  Testimonies  to  the  Deity  of  Christ,  Svo. 


354  API'ENDIX. 

Rev.  Dr.  J.  P.  Smith's  Scripture  Testimony  to  the  Messiah,  3  vols 

8vo. 
Rev.  J.  Butterworth's  Concordance,  8vo. 
Bp.  Gastrell's  Christian  Institutes,  12mo.  ;  or, 
Mr.  Warden's  System  of  Revealed  Religion,  2  vols.  8vo. 
Bp.  Newton's  Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Should  more  extended  commentaries  be  required  than  those  here 
specified,  tlie  reader  is  referred  to  the  works  of  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  and 
others,  which  are  enumerated  in  the  Appendix  to  Vol.  II.  of  the  au- 
thor's larger  Introduction. 


No.  VI. 

A   CONCIflE    CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE  OP  THE  PRINCIPAL    EPOCHS  MEN- 
TIONED IN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS. 

I.  Old  Testament  History. 

B  C. 

The  Creation  of  the  World 4004 

Noah  bom 2948 

Peleg,  (son  of  Heber.) — Division  of  the  earth  into  families  and 

languages --  2247 

Abraham  bom 1990 

Call  of  Abraham Iii21 

Ishmael,  son  of  Abraham  and  Hagar,  bom         -         -         -  19 JO 

Destruction  of  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  and  the  cities  of  the  plain  1 898 

Covenant  with  Abraham  renewed 1898 

Birth  of  Isaac 1871 

Isaac  marries  Rebekah     -------  1856 

Jacob  marries  Leah  and  Rachel         -----  1759 

Joseph  sold  into  Egypt     -------  1728 

Jacob  and  his  family  go  into  Egypt 1706 

Death  of  Jacob 1««9 

Death  of  Jo.seph *635 

A  Revolution  in  Egypt.— The  Israelites  persecuted    -        -  1577 

Birth  of  Moses 1571 

The  Exodus  from  Egypt 1491 

The  Delivery  of  the  Law 1490 

The  death  of  Moses ;  the  entrance  of  the  Israelites  into  the 

promised  land,  under  Joshua 1451 

The  Administration  of  the  Elders  and  Judges,  after  the  death 

of  Joshua      --------         1443,  &c. 

Saul  appointed  and  consecrated  king  .         .         -         -  1095 

The  accession  of  David  to  the  throne  .         .         -         -  1055 

The  reign  of  Solomon  alone 1014 

The  dedication  of  the  temple -  1004 

Accessicjn  of  Rehoboam,  and  the  secession  of  the  ten  tribes 

under  Jeroboam    -         -         -         •  ...  975 


APPENDIX. 

365 

Kings  of  Israel  f 01'  264  Years. 

Kings  ofJudahfar 

388  Years. 

Jeroboam  I.    - 

B.C. 
975 

Rehoboam 

B.C. 
975 

Jerusalem  taken  by 

Shishak 

king  of  Egypt.     The  Tem- 

ple plundered    - 

. 

975 

Nadab  -         -         -         - 

954 

Abiiah   -        -        - 

_ 

958 

Baasha           -        -        . 

953 

Asa        -        .        - 

_ 

955 

Elah      ...        - 

930 

Zimri  conspires  against  Elah, 

and  reigns  seven  days   at 

Tirza 

Omri     -        -        _        - 

929 

Ahab     .... 

918 

Jehoshaphat  - 

. 

914 

Ahaziah         .        _        - 

897 

Jehoram,  or  Joram 

896 

Joram    -         ,         - 

889 

Jehu      -        -        .        > 

884 

.\haziah 

_ 

885 

Athahah 

, 

884 

Jehoahaz        -        .        . 

856 

Amaziah 

_ 

838 

Joash     -         -        -        - 

839 

Jeroboam  11. 

823 

Uzziah,  or  Azariah 

_ 

809 

An  interregnmn  of  eleven  years 

begins         -         .         . 

784 

Zachariah  son  of  Jeroboam 

773 

Shall  am  reigned  one  month 

772 

And  slain  by  Menahem  - 

770 

Pekahiah        .        -        . 

760 

Uzziah 

Pekah    -         -         -         - 

758 

Jotham 

. 

757 

Anarchy  for  nine  years  - 

738 

Ahaz 

. 

741 

Hoshea           ... 

729 

Hezekiah        - 

. 

726 

End  of  the  kingdom  of  Israe 

1, 

after   it   had  subsisted  two 

hundred  and  fifty-four  years 

. 

Kings  of  Jmlah  alone. 

B    C 

Manasseh        --  -----_  597 

Amon      ---------_  543 

Josiah     ------_-__  g4Q 

Jehoaz,  son  of  Josiah        -----_.  609 

Jehoiakim         -------__  6O8 

Jeconiah,  Coniah,  or  Jehoiakun,  son  of  Jehoiakim      -        -  599 

Zedekiah,  uncle  of  Jeconiah,  originally  named  Mattaniah  -  597 

Zedekiah  revolts  against  the  Chaldseans    -         -         .         -  590 

The  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar. — Zedekiah's  FHght, 

He  is  deprived  of  sight. — Jerusalem  taken,  and  the  temple  burnt  588 
Beginning  of  the  seventy  years'  captivity. — The  destruction  of 
the  kingdom  of  Judah,  after  it  kad  subsisted  four  hundred  and 
sixty-eight  years  from  the  commencement  of  David's  reign ; 
31* 


36g  APPENDIX. 

B.C. 

and  three  hundred  and  eighty-eight  years  from  the  separation 

between  Judah  and  the  ten  tribes 
Daniel's  three  companions  cast  into  the  fiery  furnace  -  560 

ZS^ebuchadnezzar's  death 

Evil-Merodach  succeeds  him ;  reigns  but  one  year 
Belshazzar  his  son  succeeds  him        -----  559 

Cyrus  liberates  the  Persians,  and  takes  the  tille  of  king      -  558 

Belshazzar's  impious  feast ;  his  death        -         _         -         -  556 

Darius  the  Mcde  succeeds  Belshazzar 
Daniel's  prophecy  of  the  seventy  weeks.  (Dan.  ix.,  x.)        -  555 

Daniel  cast  into  the  lion's  den -  552 

Cyrus  sets  the  Jews  at  liberty,  and  permits  their  return  into  Judaea    547 
The  Jews,  returning  from  captivity,  renew  the  sacriiices  in  the 

temple 546 

Darius,  otherwise  Ahasuerus,  acknowledged  king  of  the  Persians  521 

Hajjirai  the  prophet -         -  520 

Zochariah  be<:iins  to  prophesy   ------  519 

Darius  allows  the  Jews  to  rebuild  their  temple   -         -         -  518 

Here,  properly,  end  the  seventy  years  of  captivity  foretold  by 

Jeremiah,  which  began  a.  m.  3416 
The  dedication  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  rebuilt  by  Zerub- 

babel 515 

Haman  vows  the  destruction  of  the  Jews,  and  procures  from 

Ahasuerus  an  order  for  their  extermination     -         -         -  508 

Esther  obtains  a  revocation  of  this  decree 
Haman  hung  on  the  gallows  he  had  prepared  for  Mordecai 
The  Jews  punish  their  enemies  at  Shushan,  and  throughout  the 

Persian  empire      --------  508 

Xerxes  succeed  Darius     -------  485 

Xerxes  dies ;  Artaxerxes  succeeds  him       -         -         -         -  473 

He  sends  Ezra  to  Jerusalem.  (Ezra  vii.  1.  7,  8.)  -         -  467 

Ezra  rcfonns  abuses  among  the  Jews         .         .         -         .  406 

Dedication  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  by  Nehemiah     -         -  454 

Nehemiah  renews  the  covenant  of  Israel  with  the  Lord       -  453 

Nehemiah  returns  to  king  Artaxerxes         .         -         -         -  441 

Nehemiah  comes  a  second  time  into  Judsea,  and  reforms  abuses    439 
Zechariah  prophesies  under  his  govermnent ;  also  Malachi,  whom 

several  have  confounded  with  Ezra. 


n.  New^  Testament  History-. 

From  the  Birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  to  the  Completion  of  the  Canon  of 
the  New  Testament. 

Y.of 
J.  C. 
The  l)irth  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Josus  Christ,  the  4th  year 
before  a.  D.  ....-----         1 

The  circumcision  of  Jesus  Christ    ------         1 

Wise  men  come  to  worshij)  Jesus  Christ 


APPENDIX. 


367 


Y.of 

Purification  of  the  holy  virgin. — ^Jesus  presented  in  the  temple 
Flight  into  Egypt 

Massacre  of  the  innocents  at  Bethlehem 
Herod  dies 

Archelaus  appointed  king  of  Judaea  by  his  will 
Return  of  Jesus  Christ  out  of  Egypt ;  he  goes  to  dwell  at  Naza- 
reth 
Archelaus  banished  to  Vienna  in  Gaul    -----         9 
Jesus  Christ,  at  twelve  years  of  age,  goes  into  the  temple  of  Je- 
rusalem  - ----13 

John  the  Baptist  begins  to  preach  -'        -        -        -         -         -       32 

Jesus  Christ  baptized  by  John  the  Baptist        -        .        -        -      33 

Jesus  goes  into  the  desert 

The  second  passover  of  our  Saviour's  public  ministry       -        -      34 

Our  Saviour's  sermon  on  the  mount 

Mission  of  the  apostles  into  several  parts  of  Judsea  -         -         -       35 

John  the  Baptist  slain  by  order  of  Herod,  at  the  instigation  of 

Herodias 
Lazarus  falls  sick  and  dies   -------36 

Jesus  comes  to  Jerusalem  to  be  present  at  his  third  and  last 

passover ; — 
Institutes  the  Lord's  supper ;  is  betrayed  and  crucified. — ^His  re- 
surrection and  appearance  to  many. — Ascension  into  Heaven, 
and  the  miraculous  efiusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
Seven  deacons  chosen  -.--__  37 

Stephen  martyred        --_-_.«  37 

Saul  persecutes  the  church  -        -        _        .        -  37 

Conversion  of  Saul      --------38 

Paul  a  prisoner  at  Rome     -     .    -        -        -  -        -        64 

Paul  set  at  liberty       -         -         .  «        _        _         66 

Paul's  second  imprisonment  at  Rome  -----        68 

Paul  and  Peter  put  to  death  there        -  -        _        _        69 

The  Emperor  Vespasian  enters  Judsea  _        -        _        _        70 

Jerusalem  taken  by  Titus,  and  the  Temple  bomt  •-        -        73 

John  banished  to  Patmos     ---_._  95 

John  liberated     -----__--        99 

John  writes  his  Gospel  and  Revelation         -       -  100 


3^  Al'FENDlX. 

No.  VII. 

A   TABLE  OF  THE  PRIN'CIPAL  PROPHECIES  RELATIVE  TO  THE 

MESSIAH, 

WITH  THEIR  ACCOMPLISHMENT,  AS  RELATED  IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

1.  That  A  Messiah  should  covie. 

Prophecy.  Gen.  iii.  15.  He  (the  seed  of  the  woman)  shall  bruise  thy 
head,  and  thoushalt6rw/se  his  heel.  Compare  Gen.  xxii.  18,  xii.  3,  xxvl. 
4,  xxviil.  4,  and  Psal.  Ixxii.  17.  Isa.  xl.  5.  The  glory  of  the  Lord  shall 
be  revealed,  and  all  flesh  shall  see  it  together.  Hagg.  ji.  7.  The  desire 
of  all  nations  shall  come. 

Fuljilment.  Gal,  iv.  4.  When  the  fulness  of  time  was  come,  God  sent 
forth  his  son,  made  ot  a  woman,  (four  thousand  years  after  the  first  pro- 
phecy was  delivered.)  Rom.  xvi.  20.  The  God  of  peace  shall  bruise 
Katan  under  your  feel  shortly.  1  .John  iii.  8.  The  Son  of  God  was  manl- 
fested  that  he  might  destroy  the  works  of  the  Devil,  (that  old  serpent, 
Rev.  xii.  9.)  See  also  Heb.  ii.  14.  Luke  ii.  10.  I  bring  you  good  tidings 
of  great  joy,  which  shall  be  to  all  people. 

2.  The  Time  when  he  should  come. 

Prop'  ecy.  Gen.  xlix.  10.  The  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Judah,  nor 
a  lawgiver  from  between  his  feet,  until  Shiloh  come.  The  Messiah  was 
to  come  at  a  time  of  universal  peace,  and  when  there  was  a  general  ex- 
pectation of  him  ;  and  while  the  second  temple  was  standing  seventy 
wet^ks  (of  years,  i.  e.  490  years)  after  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem.  See 
Hagg.  ii.  6—9  ;  Dan  ix.  23—25  ;  Mai.  iii.  1. 

Ku Ifihnent.  When  the  Messiah  came,  the  sceptre  had  departed  from 
Judah ;  for  the  Jews,  though  governed  by  their  own  rulers  and  magis- 
trates, yet  were  subject  to  the  paramount  authority  of  the  Roman  empe- 
rors ;  as  was  evinced  by  their  being  subject  to  the  enrolment  of  Augustus, 
paying  tribute  to  Caesar,  and  not  having  the  power  of  life  and  death. 
Compare  Luke  ii.  1.  3— .5  ;  Matt,  xxii-  20,  21  ;  and  the  parallel  passages; 
and  John  xx.  10.  15.  When  Jesus  Christ  came  into  the  world,  the  Roman 
wars  were  terminated,  the  temple  of  Janus  was  shut,  and  universal  peace 
reisned  throughout  the  Roman  empire;  and  all  nations,  both  Jews  and 
Gentiles,  were  expecting  the  coming  of  some  extranrdinaiy  person.  See 
Matt.  ii.  I— 10;  Mark  xv.  43;  Luke  li.  25.  38;  and  John  i.  19—45.  for  the 
exi)ectation  of  the  Jews.  The  two  Roman  hi.storians,  Suetonius  and  Ta- 
citus, confirm  the  fulfilment  of  the  prediction,  as  to  the  expectation  of  the 
Gentiles. 

3.  The  Dignity  of  his  Character,— /Aa/  the  Messiah  should  be  God  and 
Man  together. 

ProjAeey.  Psal.  11.  7.  Thou  art  my  Son,  this  day  have  I  begotten 
thee.  Pbal.  ex.  1.  The  Lord  said  unto  my  Lord.  Isa.  Ix.  C.  The  mighty 
God,  the  everlasting  Father.  Mic.  5.  2.  Whose  goings  forth  have  been 
from  of  old,  from  everlasting. 

Fulfilment.  Heb.  1.  8.  Unto  the  Son,  he  sallh,  "Thy  throne,  O  God,  is 
for  ever  and  ever."  Compare  Matt.  xxll.  42—55;  Acts  11.  34,  35;  Cor.  Xv. 
24  ;  Heb.  I.  13.  "Matt.  1.  23.  They  shall  call  his  name  Emmanuel,  that 
1«,  (;(„[  wlih  us.  .l(jhn  1.  1.  14.  The  Word  was  with  (Jod,  and  the  Word 
Waa  God.    The  Word  was  made  flesh  and  dwelt  among  us.     Rom.  ix.  6, 


APPENDIX.  359 

Of  whom  (the  fathers)  as  concerning  the  flesh  Christ  came,  who  is  God 
over  all,  blessed  for  ever.    See  also  Col.  ii.  9  ;  1  John  v.  20. 

4.  From  whom  he  was  to  be  descended. 

Prophecy.  From  the  first  woman.  Gen.  iii.  15.  From  Abraham  and 
his  descendants,  Gen.  xil.  3,  xviii.  18  ;  viz.  :  Isaac,  Gen.  Xxvi.  4 ;  Jacob, 
Gen.  xxviii.  14;  Judah,  Gen.  xlix.  10;  Jesse,  Jsa.  xi.  1;  David,  Psal. 
cxxxii.  1 1,  Ixxxix.  4.  27 ;  Isa.  vi.  13,  14,  ix.  7  ;  Jer.  xxiii.  5,  and  xxxiii.  20,  21. 

Fulfilment.  Gal.  iv.  4.  When  the  fulness  of  lime  was  come,  God  sent 
forth  his  son,  made  of  a  woman. 

Acts  iii.  25.  The  covenant  which  God  made  with  our  fathers,  saying 
unto  Abraham,  "And  in  thy  seed  shall  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  be 
blessed."  See  Matt.  i.  1.  Heb.  vii.  14.  It  is  evident  that  our  Lord  sprang 
out  of  Judah.  Rom.  xv.  12,  Isaiah  saith  there  shall  be  a  root  of  Jesse. 
John  vii.  42,  Hath  not  the  Scripture  said,  that  Christ  cometh  of  the  seed 
of  David.    See  also  Acts  ii.  30,  xiii.  23  ;  Luke  i.  32. 

5.  That  the  Messiah  should  be  born  of  a  Virgin. 

Prophecy.  Isa.  vii.  14.  Behold  a  Virgin  shall  conceive  and  bring  forth 
a  Son. 

Jer.  xxxi.  22.  The  Lord  hath  created  a  new  thing  on  the  earth ;  a  woman 
shall  compass  a  man.  (N.  B.  The  ancient  Jews  applied  this  proj)hecy  to 
the  Messiah,  whence  it  follows,  that  the  later  interpretations  to  the  con- 
trary are  only  to  avoid  the  truth  which  we  profess  ;  viz.  :  That  Jesus  was 
born  of  a  virgin,  and  therefore  is  The  Christ,  or  Messiah.  Bp.  Pearson  on 
the  Creed,  Art.  III.  p.  171.  edit.  1715.  folio.) 

Fulfilment.  Matt.  i.  24,  25,  Joseph  took  his  wife  and  knew  her  not, 
till  she  had  brought  forth  her  first  born  son.  Compare  Luke  i.  26—35. 
Matt.  i.  22,  23.  All  this  was  done,  that  it  might  be  fulfilled,  which  was 
spoken  of  the  Lord  by  the  prophet,  saying,  '  Behold  a  virgin  shall  be  with 
child,  and  shall  bring  forth  a  son.' 

6.  The  Place  where  the  Messiah  was  to  be  born. 

Prophecy.  Mic.  v.  2.  Thou  Bethlehem  Ephratah,  though  thou  be  little 
among  the  thousands  of  Judah  ;  yet  out  of  thee  shall  he  come-  forth  unto 
me  that  is  to  be  ruler  in  Israel. 

Fulfilment.  Luke  ii.  4—6.  All  went  to  be  taxed  (or  enrolled.)  every- 
one into  his  own  city.  And  .Joseph  also  went  up  from  Galilee,  with  Mary 
his  espoused  wife,  unto  Bethlehem;  and,  while  they  were  there  she  brought 
forth  her  firstborn  son.  Compare  also  Luke  ii.  10,  11.  16,  and  Matt,  ii  I, 
4—6.  8.11;  John  vii.  42. 

7.  That  a  Prophet,  in  the  spirit  and  power  of  Elias,  or  Elijah,  should  be  the 
Messiah^ s  forerunner  and  prepare  his  way. 

Prophecy.  Malachi  iii.  1,  and  iv.  5 ;  Isa.  xl.  3;  Luke  i.  17.  Behold  I 
Will  send  my  messenger,  and  he  shall  prepare  my  way  before  me. 

Fulfilment.  Matt.  iii.  1.  In  those  days  came  J'oAn  the  Baptist  \)xeaiC\iins 
In  the  wilderness  of  Judsea,  saying,  Repent  ye,  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is 
at  liand.  Matt.  xi.  14 ;  Luke  vii.  27,  28.  This  is  Elias  which  was  for  to 
come. 

8.    That  he  should  begin  to  publish  the  Gospel  in  Galileb. 

Prophecy.  Isa.  ix.  1,2.  In  Galilee  of  the  nations,  the  people  that  walk- 
ed in  darkness  have  seen  a  great  light. 

Fulfilment.  Matt.  iv.  12.  17.  Now  when  Jesus  heard  that  John  was 
cast  into  prison,  he  departed  into  Galilee.  From  that  time  Jesus  began 
to  preach  and  to  say,  Repent,  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  at  hand. 


370  APPENDIX. 

9.  That  the  Messiah  teas  to  be  a  Prophet  avd  Legislator  like  unto  Moses, 
but  superior  to  him,  who  should  change  the  law  of  Moses  into  a  new  and 
more  perfect  law,  common  both  to  Jews  and  Gentiles,  and  which  should 
last  for  ever. 

The  law  of  Moses  was  promulgated  to  the  Jewish  people  exclusively, 
and  was  full  of  burdensome  ceremonies;  the  sacrifices  enjoined  by  it 
were  to  be  performed  only  at  Jerusalem,  and  it  was  delivered  by  a  man 
to  men.     But, 

Prophecy.  1.  The  Messiah  is  foretold  to  be  a  prophet  like  unto  Mosea. 
Deul.  15.  18.  "The  Lord  thy  God  will  raise  up  unto  thee  a  prophet  from 
the  midst  of  thee,  of  thy  brethren,  like  unto  me.  Unto  him  shall  ye 
hearken."  For  Moses  differs  from  all  the  other  Old  Testament  prophets  in 
this,  that  he  was  truly  a  legislator,  the  friend  of  God,  E.xod.  xxxiii.  11,  and 
was  distinguished  by  the  multitude  of  his  miracles,  Deut.  xxxiv.  11. 

2.  The  Me.ssiah  was  to  enact  a  new  law,  Isa.  iv.  3.  Out  of  Zion  shedl 
go  forth  the  law,  and  the  word  of  the  law  from  Jerusalem. 

3.  This  law  was  to  be  common  to  all  nations  ;  see  Isa.  ii.  2,  3,  and  11.  4,  5. 

4.  The  new  law,  or  covenant  of  the  Messiah,  was  to  endure  for  ever; 
gee  Isa.  lix.  21 ;  Jer.  xxxi.  34  ;  Ezek.  xxxvi.  27,  xxxvil.  26 ;  Isa.  Iv.  3,  Ixi. 
8;  Jer.  xxxii.  40;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  25;  Dan.  vii.  13,  14;  Isa.  xliii.  6,  Ixii.  2. 

Fulfilment.     Christ  is  a  prophet  infinitely  superior  to  Moses: 

1.  As  to  his  person.  Heb.  iii.  5,  6.  Moses,  verily,  was  faithful  in  all  his 
house,  as  a  servant,  for  a  testimony  of  those  things  which  were  to  be 
spoken  after ;  but  Christ  as  a  So7i  over  his  own  house,  whose  house  are  we. 

2.  As  to  his  law.  Ileb.  vii.  18,  19.  There  is  a  disannulling  of  the  com- 
mandment  going  before,  for  the  weakness  and  unprofitableness  thereof; 
for  the  law  made  notliing  perfect,  but  the  bringing  in  of  a  better  hope 
(I.e.  of  a  new  law,)  did,  l)y  the  which  we  draw  nigh  to  God. 

The  law  of  Moses  belonged  to  one  nation  only,  but  the  Gospel,  which  Is 
the  law  of  Christ,  is  designed  for  all  nations.  Compare  Nos.  3  and  4  of 
the  preceding  predictions,  with  Matt,  xxviii.  19,  20;  Mark  xvi.  20;  and 
Col.  i.  23. 

3.  As  to  the  benefits  he  has  conferred.  Moses  delivered  the  Israelites 
from  their  cruel  bondage  in  Egypt;  he  was  the  mediator  of  the  covenant 
between  God  and  his  people  ;  he  conducted  them  through  the  desert  into 
Canaan,  and  interceded  with  God  for  them  ;  but  all  these  were  only  tem- 
poral benefits.  On  the  other  hand,  Christ  saves  all  tliat  truly  believe  in 
him,  and  unfeignedly  repent,  from  the  guilt,  the  power,  and  the  punish- 
ment of  their  sins,  Matt.  i.  23.  He  hath  obtained  a  more  excellent  minis- 
try, by  how  much  also  he  is  the  mediator  of  abetter  covenant,  which  was 
established  upon  belter  promises,  Heb.  viii.  6.  Bee  also  Heb.  vii.  22,  iv.  15, 
xii.  24  ;  2  Cor.  iii.  6.  Christ  has  reconciled  the  world  unto  God,  2  Cor.  v. 
10  ;  1  John  ii.  2  ;  and  has  given  us  an  example  that  we  should  follow  his 
steps,  1  Pet.  ii.  21 — 23.  As  our  forerunner,  he  hath  entered  into  heaven, 
that  where  he  Is,  there  his  followers  may  be  also,  Heb.  vi.  20,  Ix.  24  ;  John 
xlv.  2,  3;  and  as  an  advocate  he  ever  liveih  to  make  intercession  for  all 
that  come  unto  God  by  him,  1  John  ii.  1  ;  Heb.  vii.  25. 

4.  As  to  the  circumstances  of  his  death.  Muses  died,  in  one  sense,  for  the 
Iniquities  of  his  people.  Tlieir  rebellion,  which  was  the  occasion  of  it, 
drew  down  the  divine  displeasure  upon  them,  and  upon  hhn.  See  Deul.  I. 
37.  Moses,  therefore,  went  up,  in  the  sigl)l  of  the  people,  to  the  top  of 
Mount  Neho,  and  there  he  died,  when  he  was  In  perfect  rigour.  Christ 
suffered  for  the  sins  of  mankind,  and  was  led  up  in  the  presence  of  the 
people  to  Calvary,  where  he  died  in  the  flower  of  his  age. 

"Let  us  search  all  the  records  of  universal  history,  and  see  If  we  can 
find  a  man  who  was  so  like  to  Moses  ns  Christ  was.  If  we  ciuinot  find 
Buch  a  one,  then  we  have  found  HIM,  of  whom  Moses  In  Uie  law  and  the 
prophets  did  write,  to  be  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  thb  Hon  op  God." 


APPENDIX. 


371 


10.     That  the  Messiah  should  confirm  his  doctrine  by  great  Miracles. 

Prophecy.  Isa.  xxxv.  5,  6.  Then  the  eyes  of  the  blind  shall  be  opened, 
and  the  ears  of  the  deaf  shall  be  unstopped ;  then  shall  the  lame  man 
leap  as  a  hart,  and  the  toitgue  of  the  dumb  sing. 

Fulfilment.  Matt.  xi.  4,5.  Jesus  .  .  .  said,  "Go  and  show  John  those 
things  which  ye  do  hear  and  see:  the  blind  receive  their  sight,  and  the 
lame  walk  ;  the  lepers  are  cleansed,  and  the  deaf  hear." 

II.  In  what  manner  the  Messiah  was  to  make  his  public  entry  into 
Jerusalem. 

Prophecy.  Zech.  ix.  9.  Rejoice  greatly,  O  daughter  of  Jerusalem,  be- 
hold thy  King  cometh  unto  thee;  he  is  just,  and  having  salvation,  lowly, 
and  riding  upon  an  ass,  even  upon  a  colt,  the  foal  of  an  ass. 

Fulfilment.  Matt.  xxi.  7—10.  The  disciples,  brought  the  ass  and  the 
colt,  and  put  on  them  their  clothes,  and  set  him  (Jesus)  thereon,  (that  is, 
upon  the  clothes.)  And  great  multitudes  spread  their  garments,  &c.  &c. 
Matt.  xxi.  4,  .5.  All  this  was  done,  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was 
spoken  by  the  prophet,  saying,  Tell  ye  the  daughter  of  Zion,  "  Behold  thy 
King  Cometh,"  <fcc.  &c. 

12.  The  CiRccMSTANCEs  of  his  Sufferings  and  Death. 

1.  That  the  Messiah  should  be  poor  and  despised,  and  be  betrayed  by  one 
of  his  own  disciples,  for  thirty  pieces  of  silver ;  (at  that  time  the  ordinary 
price  of  the  vilest  slave  ;)  icith  which  the  potter's  field  should  be  purchased. 

Prophecy.  Isa.  liii.  3.  There  is  no  beauty  that  we  should  desire  him. 
He  is  despised  and  rejected  of  men,  a  man  of  sorrows,  and  acquainted 
with  grief;  and  we  hid  as  it  were  our  faces  from  him  ;  he  was  despised, 
and  we  esteemed  him  not.  Ps.  xli.  9,  and  Ps.  Iv.  12 — 14.  Yea,  mine  own 
familiar  friend  in  whom  I  trusted,  who  did  eat  of  my  bread,  hath  lift  up 
his  heel  against  me.  Zech.  xi.  12.  So  they  weighed  for  my  price  thirty 
pieces  of  silver.  Zech.  xi.  13.  And  the  Lord  said  unto  me.  Cast  it  unto  the 
potter :  a  goodly  price  that  I  was  prized  at  of  them  !  And  I  took  the  thirty 
pieces  of  silver,  and  cast  them  to  the  potter  in  the  house  of  the  Lord. 

Fulfilment.  Luke  ix.  58.  The  Son  of  Man  hath  not  where  to  lay  hi3 
head.  2  Cor.  viii.  9.  For  your  sakes  he  became  poor.  John  xi.  35.  Jesus 
WEPT.  Luke  xxii.  3,  4.  Then  Satan  entered  into  Judas,  being  one  of  the 
twelve,  and  he  went  his  w^ay,  and  communed  with  the  chief  priests  how 
he  might  betray  him  unto  them.  Matt.  xxvi.  14.  And  Judas  went  unto  the 
chief  priests,  and  said  unto  them,  What  will  ye  give  me,  and  I  will  deliver 
him  unto  you?  and  they  covenanted  with  him  for  thirty  pieces  of  silver. 
Matt,  xxvii.  3—8.  Then  Judas,  who  had  betrayed  him,  brought  again  the 
thirty  pieces  of  silver,  saying,  I  have  sinned  in  that  I  have  betrayed  inno- 
cent blood;  and  he  cast  down  the  pieces  of  silver  in  the  temple,  and  de- 
parted, and  went  and  hanged  himself.  And  the  chief  priests  took  the 
silver,  and  they  said,  it  is  not  lawful  to  put  it  into  the  treasury,  because 
it  is  the  price  of  blood.  And  they  took  counsel,  and  bought  with  them  the 
potter's  field,  to  bury  strangers  in. 

2.  That  the  Messiah  should  suffer  pain,  and  death  for  the  sins  of  the 
World. 

Prophecy.  Psal.  xxii.  16,  17.  For  dogs,  (that  is,  the  Heathens,  whom 
the  Jews  called  dogs.)  have  compassed  me  ;  the  assembly  of  the  wicked 
have  inclosed  me  ;  they  have  pierced  my  hands  and  my  feet.  I  may  tell 
all  my  bones ;  they  look  and  stare  upon  me.  Isa.  1.  6.  I  gave  my  back  to 
the  smiters,  and  my  cheeks  to  them  that  plucked  off  the  hair.  I  hid  not 
my  face  from  sha7ne  and  spitting.  Isa.  liii.  5.  8.  He  was  wounded  for  our 
transgressions:  he  was  bruised  for  our  iniquities:  by  his  stripes  we  are 
healed.  He  was  cut  oflF  out  of  the  land  of  the  living:  for  the  transgres- 
sion of  my  people  was  he  striken.  Isa.  liii.  12.  And  he  bare  the  sin  of 
many,  and  made  intercession  for  the  transgressors. 


372  APPENDIX. 

Fulfilment.  John  xix.  1,  2.  Then  Pilate  took  Jesus,  and  scourged  him. 
And  the  soldiers  platted  a  crown  of  tliorns,  and  ihey  smote  him  with  the 
palms  of  their  hands.  Matt,  xxvii.  30;  Mark  xv,  19.  And  they  did  «p»7 upon 
him,  and  smote  him  on  the  head,  Markxv.  25.  And  they  crucified  him. 
1  Pet.  ii.  2.3,  24.  Who,  when  he  was  reviled,  reviled  not  again;  when  he 
suffered,  he  threatened  not.  Who  bare  our  sins  in  his  own  body  on  the 
tree,  (the  cross.)  Luke  xxiii.  34.  Then,  said  Jesus,  "  Father,  forgive  them, 
for  tliey  know  not  tchat  they  do." 

3.  7''hat  the  Messiah  should  be  cruelly  mocked  and  derided. 
Prophecy.     Psal.  xxii.   12,  13.   7,8.     Many  bulls  have  compassed  me ; 

strong  bulls  of  Bashan,  (that  is,  the  wicked  and  furious  Jews,  who,  like 
the  beasts  fattened  on  the  fertile  plains  of  Bashan,  "  waxed  fat  and  kicked," 
became  proud  and  rebellious,)  have  beset  me  round.  They  gaped  upon 
me  with  their  mouth  ;  as  a  ravening  and  roaring  lion.  All  they  that  see 
me,  laugh  me  to  scorn ;  they  shoot  out  the  lip,  saying,  he  trusted  in  God 
that  he  icould  deliver  hitn  :  let  hiin  deliver  him,  seeing  he  delighted  in  him. 
FuIJilment.  Matt,  xxvii.  39.  41,  42;  Markxv.  31,  32;  Luke  xxiii.  35,  36. 
And  they  that  passed  by,  reviled  him,  wagging  their  heads.  Likewise 
also  the  chief  priests,  and  the  rulers  also  with  them,  derided,  and  mock- 
ing, said  among  themselves,  with  the  scribes  and  elders,  "  He  saved  others; 
himself  he  cannot  save  ;  if  he  be  the  Christ,  the  chosen  of  God,  let  him 
now  come  down  from  the  cross,  and  save  himself,  that  we  may  see,  and  we 
"Will  believe  him.  He  trusted  in  God,  let  him  deliver  him  now,  if  he  will 
have  him."  And  the  soldiers  also  mocked  him,  saying,  "  If  ihou  be  the 
Khig  of  the  Jews,  save  thyself." 

4.  That  vinegar  and  gall  should  be  offered  to  the  Messiah  upon  the  cross: 
ayid  that  his  garments  should  he  divided,  and  lots  cast  for  his  vesture. 

Prophecy.  Psal.  Ixtx.  21.  They  gave  me  also  gall  for  my  meat,  and 
In  my  thirst  they  gave  me  vinegar  to  drink.  Psal.  xxii.  18.  They  part 
my  garments  among  them,  and  cast  lots  upon  my  vesture. 

Fulfilment.  John  xix.  29.  Matt,  xxvii.  48;  Mark  xv.  36.  And  they 
filled  a  sponge  with  vinegar,  and  put  it  upon  hyssop,  and  put  it  to  his 
mouth,  John  xix.  23,  24.  And  the  soldiers,  when  they  had  crucified  Jesus, 
took  his  garments,  and  made  four  parts,  to  every  soldier  a  part :  and  also 
his  coat:  now  the  coat  was  without  seam.  They  said,  therefore,  let 
us  not  rend  it,  but  cast  lots,  whose  it  shall  be. 

5.  That  not  a  bonb  of  the  Messiah  should  be  broken. 

Prophecy.  Psal.  xxxiv.  20.  He  keepeth  all  his  bones:  nolone  of  them 
is  broken.  Zech.  xii.  10.  And  they  shall  look  upon  me  whom  they  have 
pierced. 

Fulfilment.  John  xix.  32—34.  Then  came  the  soldiers,  and  brake  the 
legs  of  (he  first,  and  of  the  other  which  was  crucified  with  him;  but 
when  they  came  to  .lesus,  and  saw  that  he  was  dead  already,  they  brake 
not  his  legs.  But  one  of  the  soldiers,  with  a  spear,  pierced  his  side,  and 
forthwith  there  came  out  blood  and  water. 

6.  That  the  Messiah  should  die  with  malefactors,  but  be  buried  honour- 
ably. 

Prophecy.  Isa.  IIH.  9.  And  he  made  his  grave  with  the  wicked,  and 
With  the  rich  in  his  death. 

Fulfilment.  Matt,  xxvii.  .38.  57— 60.  Then  were  there  two  thieves  cru- 
clfied  wiih  him.  There  came  a  rich  man  of  Arimathea,  named  Joseph, 
end  begged  the  body  of  Jesus  ;  and  he  wrapped  it  In  a  clean  linen  cloth, 
end  laid  it  in  his  own  new  tomb. 

13.  Tluit  the  Messiah  should   rise  prom  the  dead  and  ascend  into 

HEAVEN. 

Prophery.  Psal.  xvl.  0,  10.  My  flesh  also  shall  rest  in  hope.  For  thou 
Vil]l  not  )»^ave  my  soul  in  hrll,  (ilie  separate  state  of  dtpurted  spiiiLs,) 
nelih-i  will  thou  suffer  tliy  lioly  one  to  see  corruption.  Isa.  liil.  10. 
When  thou  shall  make  hi.-*  wiul  an  offering  for  sin,  he  «liall  prolong  hia 
<layH  .'  HUB  (.'hrhi  Jl|^4o  foretold  lii«  own  rnsurrrction  ;  see  Mark  vlll.  31, 
S.  34  :   Luke  tx.  22;  John  ii.  19.  21.  x.  J7    P1.0I.  Ixvill.   18.     Thou  hast  a*. 


APPENDIX.  373 

tended  up  on  high ;  thou  hast  led  captivity  captive ;  thou  hast  received 
gifts  for  men,  that  the  Lord  God  might  dwell  among  them. 

Fulfilment.  Acts  ii.  31.  David  spake  before  of  the  resurrection  of 
Christ,  that  his  soul  was  not  left  in  hell ;  (Hades,  or  the  separate  state;) 
neither  did  his  flesh  see  corruption.  See  also  Acts  xiii.  35.  Matt.  xxviiL  5, 
6,  The  angels  said  unto  the  Woman,  "He  is  not  here,  for  he  is  risen,  as 
he  said."  See  Luke  xxiv.  5,  6.  1  Cor.  xv.  4.  He  rose  again  the  third  day, 
according  to  Scriptures;  Acts  i.  3.  He  showed  himself  alive  after  his  pas- 
sion, by  many  infallible  proofs.  Mark  xvi.  19;  Luke  xxiv.  .51  ;  Acts  i.  9. 
So  then,  after  the  Lord  had  spoken  to  them,  while  he  was  blessing  them, 
and  while  they  beheld  him,  he  was  parted  from  them,  and  carried  up 
into  heaven,  and  sat  at  the  right  hand  of  God.  Compare  also  1  Pet.  iii.  22 ; 
1  Tim.  iii.  16 ;  Heb.  vi.  20. 

14.  T^at  the  Messiah  should  send  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  Comforter. 

Prophecy.  Joel  ii.  28.  I  will  pour  out  my  Spirit  upon  all  flesh ;  and 
your  sons  and  your  daughters  shall  prophesy.  Jesus  Clivist  promised,  and 
foretold  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  John  vii.  38,  39,  xiv.  16,  17.  26,  xv. 
26,    xvi.  7.  13;  Acts  i.  4,  5.  8. 

Fulfilment.  See  all  these  promises  and  predictions  fulfilled  in  Acts  it 
1—4,  iv.  31,  viii.  17,  x.  44,  xi.  15. 

15.  The  Abolition  of  thb  Jewish  covenant  by  the  introduction  of  the 
Gospel. 

Prophecy.  Behold  the  days  come,  saith  the  Lord,  that  I  will  make  a 
new  covenant  with  the  house  of  Israel,  and  with  the  house  of  Judah:  not 
according  to  the  covenant  that  I  made  with  their  fathers,  in  the  day  that 
I  took  them  by  the  hand  to  bring  them  out  of  Egypt ;  which  my  cove- 
nant they  brake,  though  I  was  a  husband  to  them,  saith  the  Loud.  But 
this  shall  be  the  covenant,  that  I  will  make  with  the  house  of  Israel : 
After  those  days,  saith  the  Lord,  I  will  put  my  law  in  their  inward  parts, 
and  write  it  in  their  hearts,  and  will  be  their  God,  and  they  shall  be  my 
people.  And  they  shall  teach  no  more  every  man  his  neighbour,  and 
every  man  his  brother,  saying,  "  Know  the  Lord  ;"  for  they  shall  all  know 
me,  from  the  least  of  them  unto  the  greatest  of  them,  saith  the  Lord  :  for 
I  will  forgive  their  iniquity,  and  I  will  remember  their  sin  no  more.    The 

Fulfilment  of  this  prediction  is  shown  at  length  by  St.  Paul,  in  the 
eighth  chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  verses  7 — 13. 

The  old  covenant  is  abolished,  and  its  observance  rendered  impossible 
by  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Judeea  and  Jerusalem,  and  by  the  utter 
destruction  of  that  temple  and  altar,  on  which  the  whole  of  the  Jewish 
Worship  depended.  It  is,  therefore,  as  impossible  to  doubt  that  the  Medi- 
ator of  the  new  covenant  is  come,  as  to  question  those  external  facts 
which  prove  that  the  ancient  covenant  subsists  no  longer, 

16.  That  there  is  salvation  only  through  Christ. 

Prophecy.  Zech.  xiii.  1.  In  that  day  there  shall  be  a  fountain  opened 
to  the  house  of  David,  and  to  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  for  sin,  and 
for  uncleanness.  Mai.  iv.  2.  Unto  you  that  fear  my  name,  shall  the  Sun 
of  Righteousness  arise,  with  healing  in  his  wings,  Isa.  liii.  11.  By  his  know- 
ledge shall  my  righteous  Servant  justify  many.  Isa,  lix.  20.  The  Re- 
deemer shall  come  to  Sion,  and  unto  them  that  turn  from  transgression 
in  Jacob.  See  Rom.  ix.  26.  Ps.  cxviii.  22.  The  stone  which  the  builders 
refused,  the  same  is  become  the  head-stone  of  the  corner,  Isa.  xxviii. 
16;  Markxii.  10. 

Fulfilment.  John  iii.  16.  God  so  loved  the  world,  that  he  gave  hisonly 
begotten  Son,  that  whosoever  believeth  in  him,  should  not  perish  but  have 
everlasting  life.  Compare  also  1  Thes,  v.  9  ;  John  xvii.  3.  Luke  xxiv.  47. 
That  repentance  and  remission  of  sins  should  be  preached  in  his  name. 
See  also  Acts  x.  43,  Acts  xiii.  38,  39.    Through  this  man  is  preached  unto 

32 


374  APPENDIX. 

you  the  forgiveness  of  sins ;  and  by  him  all  that  believe  are  justified. 
Acts  Iv.  11,  12.  This  is  the  stone  which  was  set  at  naught  of  you  build- 
ers, wliich  is  become  the  head  of  the  corner.  Neither  is  there  salvation  in 
any  other :  for  there  is  none  other  name  under  Heaven  given  among  men, 
whereby  we  must  be  saved. 

17.  Of  the  necessity  of  believing  in  Christ,  and  the  danger  of  rejecting 
Mm. 

Deut.  xviii.  15.19.  The  Lord  will  raise  up  unto  thee  a  prophet,  unto  him 
shall  ye  hearken  :  whosoever  will  not  hearken  unto  my  words,  which  he 
shall  speak  in  my  name,  I  will  require  it  of  him.  [In  Acts  iii.  23,  this 
prediction  is  cited  and  applied  to  Jesus  Christ.]  Numb.  xv.  30,  31.  The 
soul  that  doth  aught  presumptuously,  reproacheth  the  Lord ;  and  that 
soul  shall  be  cut  off  from  among  his  people,  because  he  hath  despised  the 
word  of  the  Lord.  Ps.  ii.  12,  Kiss  the  son,  lest  he  be  angry,  and  ye  perish 
from  the  right  way. 

John  iii.  18.  He  that  believeth  on  him  is  not  condemned  ;  but  he  that 
believeth  not  is  condemned  already,  because  he  hath  not  believed  in  the 
name  of  the  only  Son  of  God.  Ileb.  ii.  3.  How  shall  we  escape  if  we  ne- 
glect so  great  salvation.  Heb.  x.  26.  29.  If  we  sin  wilfully,  after  that  we 
have  received  the  knowledge  of  the  truth,  there  remainelh  no  more  sacri- 
fice for  sins,  but  a  certain  fearful  looking  for  of  judgment  and  fiery  indig- 
nation, which  shall  devour  the  adversaries.  He  that  despised  Moses'  law 
died  without  mercy,  under  two  or  three  witnesses ;  of  how  n>uch  sorer 
punishment  shall  he  be  thought  worthy,  who  hath  trodden  under  foot  the 
Son  of  God,  and  hath  counted  the  blood  of  the  covenant,  wherewith  he. 
was  sanctified,  an  unholy  thing,  and  hath  done  despite  unto  the  SSpirit  of 
grace.  The  Lord  shall  be  revealed  from  Heaven,  ucith  his  viighty  angels, 
in  Jlaming  fire,  taking  vengeance  on  them  that  know  not  God,  and  that 
obey  not  the  gospel  of  our  Lord  Christ,  2  Thess.  i.  7,  8. 


"Tne  testimony  of  Jesus  is  the  spirit  of  pvophecy,"  Rev.  xix.  10 :  and 
of  that  testimony,  it  were  easy  to  have  offered  hundreds  of  instances, 
equally  striking  with  those  above  given.  Copious  as  the  preceding  table 
of  prophecies  is.  the  selection  has  necessarily  been  restricted  to  the  princi- 
pal, in  order  that  this  article  might  not  be  extended  to  an  undue  length. 
A  more  copious  table  is  given  in  the  appendix  to  the  first  volume  of  the 
author's  Introduction  to  the  Critical  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  To  concludp,  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  most  of  the  pro- 
phecies concerning  the  Messiah  were  revealed  nearly,  and  some  of  them 
more  than  three  thousand  years  ago.  and  yet  scarcely  one  of  tliem  can  be 
applied  to  any  man  that  ever  lived  upon  earth,  except  to  him,  who  is 
Immanuel,  God  with  us,  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  to  whom  "give  all  the 
prophets  witness,"  Acts  x.  43.  The  more  we  contemplate  tliese  astonishing 
FACTS,  the  more  deeply  we  investigate  the  wonderful  display  of  Divine 
power,  wisdom,  and  goodness,  the  more  we  shall  be  disposed  to  exclaim, 
With  the  amazed  centurion,  "  Truly  this  teas  the  Son  of  God." 


A  CONCISE 

GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 


PRINCIPAL    PLACES    MENTIONED  IN    THE    SCRIPTURES,    ESPECIALLY 
IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 


Abaka  and  Pharpar,  two  rivers 
of  Damascus,  mentioned  in  2  Kings 
V.  12.  The  valley  of  Damascus, 
■which  lay  between  Libanus  and 
Anti-Libanus,  was  watered  by  five 
rivers,  of  which  these  Avere  the  two 
principal.  Both  descended  from 
Mount  Hermon  :  the  latter  flowed 
by  the  walls  of  Damascus  ;  the  for- 
mer flowed  through  the  city  and  di- 
vided it  into  two  parts.  These  ri- 
vers are  not  now  to  be  distinguish- 
ed. 

Abarim,  mountains  of.  See  pp. 
177,  178. 

Abel,  Abel-beth- Maacha,  or  Abel- 
main,  a  city  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  canton  allotted  to  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali.  (2  Sam.  xx.  14—22.  1 
Kings  XV.  20.     2  Kings  xv.  29.) 

Abel-meholah  was  the  native 
country  of  Elisha.  (I  Kings  xix. 
16.)  Not  far  from  hence,  Gideon 
obtained  a  victory  over  the  Midian- 
ites.     (Judg.  vii.  22.) 

Abel-shittim  was  a  town  in  the 
plains  of  Moab,  beyond  Jordan,  op- 
posite Jericho.  Here  the  Israelites 
fell  into  idolatry,  and  worshipped 
Baal-Peor,  seduced  by  Balak ;  and 
here  God  severely  punished  them 
by  the  hands  of  the  Levites.  (Numb. 
XXV.   1,  «fec.) 

Abilene.     See  p.  164,  supra. 

AccHo.     See  Ptolemais. 

Aceldama,  (or  the  Field  of  Blood,) 
the  name  given  to  a  field  purchased 
with  the  money  for  which  Judas 
had  betrayed  Jesus.  It  was  appro- 
priated as  a  place  of  burial  for 
strangers.  (Acts  i.  19.  Matt,  xxvii. 
7,  8.) 

Achaia,  in  a  tiider  sense,  com- 
prised Peloponnesus  and  the  whole 
of  Greece,   properly  so  called.    (2 


Cor.  xi.  10.)  In  a  stricter  sense, 
Achaia  is  the  northern  region  of 
Peloponnesus,  of  which  Coruith  was 
the  capital. 

Achmetha.     See  Ecbatana. 

AcHOK,  a  valley  in  the  territory  of 
Jericho,  and  in  the  canton  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin,  where  Achan  was 
stoned,     (Josh.  vii.  24.) 

AcKSHAPH,  a  city  belonging  to  the 
tribe  of  Asher.  The  king  of  Ack- 
shaph  w^as  conquered  by  Joshua, 
(xii.  20.) 

Admah,  or  Adama,  one  of  the  five 
cities  destroyed  by  fire  from  heaven, 
and  afterwards  overw^helmed  by  the 
waters  of  the  Dead  Sea,  (Gen.  xix. 
24.) 

Adramyttium,  a  maritime  town  of 
Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor,  for  which  Paul 
embarked  in  his  first  voyage  to  Italy. 
(Acts  xxvii.  12.) 

Adria,  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii. 
27,  is  the  Adriatic  Sea,  now  called 
the  Gulf  of  Venice. 

i^NON,  or  ExoN,  signifies  the  place 
of  springs,  where  John  baptized. 
(John  iii.  23.)  It  is  uncertain  where 
it  was  situated,  whether  in  Galilee 
or  Judaja. 

Ahava,  a  river  of  Babylonia,  or 
of  Assyria,  where  Ezra  assembled 
those  captives  whom  he  afterwards 
brought  into  Judaea.     (Ezraviii.  15.) 

Ajalon,  a  city  in  the  canton  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan,  assigned  to  the  Levites 
of  Kohath's  family.  It  was  situated 
between  Timnath  and  Beth-She- 
mesh,  and  is  probably  the  city  al- 
luded to  in  Josh.  x.  12. 

Alexandria,  a  city  of  Egj'pt,  built 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  celebrated 
for  the  magnificence  of  its  edifices, 
and  for  the  extensive  commerce 
carried  on  by  its  inhabitants,  espe- 


376 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


cieQly  In  corn.  Alexandria  was  the 
native  place  of  Apollos.  (Acts  xviii. 
24.) 

Amphipolis,  a  city  between  Mace- 
don  and  Tlirace,  but  dependant  on 
Macedon,  mentioned  in  Acts  xvii.  1. 

Anathotu,  a  city  in  llie  tribe  of 
Benjamin,  memorable  as  being  the 
birthplace  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah. 
(Josli.  xxi.  18.  Jer.  i.  1.) 

Antioch,  the  metropolis  of  Syria, 
was  erected,  according  to  some 
writers,  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
according  to  others,  by  Seleucus  Ni- 
canor,  the  first  lung  of  Syria  after 
Alexander  the  Great,  in  memory  of 
his  fatlier  Antiochus,  and  was  the 
royal  sfeat  of  the  kings  of  Syria.  For 
power  and  dignity  it  was  little  in- 
ferior to  Seleucia  or  Alexandria. 
The  distinctive  name  of  Christians 
was  here  first  applied  to  the  follow- 
ers of  Jesus  Christ.  (Acts  xi.  19. 
26.) 

Antioch  of  Pisidia,  a  city  of  Phry- 
gia,  but  thus  denominated  because  it 
was  attached  to  the  province  of  Pi- 
Bidia.    (Acts  xiii.  14.) 

Antipatris,  a  small  town  which 
was  situated  in  the  road  from  Jeru- 
salem to  Cssarea.  It  was  formerly 
called  Capl:arsalma;  but,  being  re- 
built and  beautified  by  Herod  the 
Great,  it  was  by  him  named  Anti- 
patris in  honour  of  his  father  Anti- 
pater.  Hither  St.  Paul  was  brought 
after  his  apprehension  at  Jerusalem. 
(Actsxxiii.  31.) 

ApoLLONiA,  a  city  of  Macedonia 
Prima,  through  which  Paul  passed, 
in  his  way  to  Thessalonica.  (Acts 
xvii.  1.) 

Arabia,  the  name  of  a  large  region, 
including  the  peninsula  which  lies 
between  Syria,  Paletline,  the  Ara- 
bian and  Persian  (Julls,  and  the 
Indian  Ocean  or  Sea  of  Arabia.  Its 
Iniiatiitants  are  supposed  to  be  prin- 
cipally descended  from  Ishmael.  It 
Is  distinguished  into  three  parts, 
Arabia  I\lix,  Petrcba,  and  Deserta  ; 
but  these  divisions  were  not  ancient- 
ly known  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
EaBt,  nor  are  they  observed  In  the 
Bible. 

I.  Arabia  Felix  lies  between  the 
ocean  on  the  southeast,  ond  Uie 
Arabian  and  Persian  Gulfs.  It  Is  a 
fertile  region,  especially  in  the  in- 
terior, producing  various  species  of 
Odoriferous  shrubs  and  fragrant 
gums;  as,  frankincense,  myrrh,  cas- 


sia, &c.  The  Queen  of  Sheba  (1 
Kings  X.  1,)  is  supposed  to  have 
reigned  over  part  of  tins  region. 

2.  Arabia  Petrea  received  its 
name  from  the  city  Petra,  and  lies 
on  the  south  and  south-east  of  Pales- 
tine ;  extending  to  Egypt,  and  in- 
cluding the  peninsula  of  mount 
Sinai.  It  is  remarkable  for  its 
mountains  and  sandy  plains. 

3.  Arabia  Deskkta  lies  between 
the  other  two,  and  extends  north- 
ward along  the  confines  cif  Palestine, 
Syria,  Babylonia,  and  Mesopotamia; 
including  the  vast  deserts  which  lie 
within  these  limits,  and  which  are 
inhabited  only  by  wandering  tribes 
of  savage  Arabs. 

Aram,  fifth  son  of  Shem,  was 
father  of  the  people  of  Syria,  who, 
from  him,  are  called  Aramsans. 
The  region  which  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  denominated  Aram,  is  a  vast 
tract,  extending  fiom  Mount  Taurus 
souili  a.-^  far  as  Damascus,  and  from 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  in  an  eastern 
direction  beyond  the  Tigris  into  As- 
syria. Different  parts  of  this  region 
are  called  by  different  names ;  as, 
Aram  Nahuraivx,  or  Syria  of  the 
Two  Rivers,  that  is  Mesopotamia ; 
Aram  of  Damascus ;  Arum  of  Soba  ; 
Aram  Bcthrchoh  ;  and  Aram,  of 
Maacha ;  because  the  cities  of  Da- 
mascus, Soba,  Bethrehob,  and  Maa- 
cha, were  in  Syria;  or  at  least,  be- 
cause Syria  contained  the  provinces 
of  Soba,  Maacha,  Rehob,  &ic. 

Ararat,  a  celebrated  mountain  in 
the  Greater  Armenia;  on  which 
Noah's  ark  rested  after  the  deluge. 
(Gen.  viii.  4.) 

Arimathea,  a  small  town  to  which 
Joseph  belonged,  who  begged  the 
body  of  Jesus  from  Pilate  :  (Matt, 
xxvii.  57  :)  it  was  about  thirtj'-six 
or  tliirlyseven  miles  distant  from 
Jerusalem. 

Ah.no.n (River.)    Seep.  173,  ffwpra. 

AsHuou.  See  Azotus,  p.  377,  infra. 

Asia,  one  of  the  largest  divi.sions 
of  the  old  world,  Is  not  mentioned  in 
the  Old  Testament.  In  the  New 
Testament  it  is  always  taken  for 
Asia  Minor,  as  it  includes  the  pro- 
consular Asia,  which  comprised  the 
four  regions  of  Phrypia,  Mysia, 
Curia,  and  I.ydla.  In  lliis  procon- 
sular Asia  were  the  seven  churches 
of  Ephesus,  Laodlcttu,  Pergamos, 
Philadelphia,  Sardls,  Smyrna,  and 
Thyallro. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


377 


Assos,  a  maritime  city  of  Mysia, 
according  to  some  geographers,  but 
of  Troas,  according  to  others.  It  is 
mentioned  in  Acts  xx.  13,  14. 

AssYRrA,  a  country  of  Asia,  the 
boundaries  of  which  it  is  difficult  to 
assign.  Three  of  its  monarchs  are 
particularly  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament,  viz.  Tiglath-pileser,  Shal- 
maneser,  and  Sennacherib.  The 
former,  having  defeated  Rezin,  king 
of  Damascus,  and  taken  that  city, 
put  an  end  to  the  kingdom  there 
erected  by  the  Syrians.  He  also 
entered  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  con- 
quered Pekah,  and  carried  away 
part  of  the  ten  tribes  beyond  the 
river  Euphrates.  Shalmaneser,  the 
successor  of  Tiglath-pileser,  came 
Into  Syria,  a.  m.  3280,  b.  c.  724,  and 
desolated  the  country  of  the  Moab- 
ites,  agreeably  to  the  prophecy  of 
Isaiah,  (xvi.  1,)  delivered  three  years 
before.  He  then  attacked  Samaria, 
and  completed  the  misfortunes  of 
the  Israelites  who  remained,  by  car- 
rying them  into  captivity  beyond 
the  Euphrates.  Thus  terminated 
the  kingdom  of  Israel,  a.  m.  3283, 
B.  c.  721.  (2  Kings  xvii.  3,  xviii. 
9 — 11.)  Hezekiah,  by  the  special 
protection  of  God,  escaped  the  fury 
of  Shalmaneser,  to  whom,  however, 
he  became  tributary,  and  the  Assy- 
rian returned  in  triumph  to  Nine- 
veh. He  was  succeeded  on  the 
throne  by  his  son  Sennacherib,  a.  m. 
3287,  B.  c.  717.  He  invaded  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  during  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah,  who  had  refused  to 
pay  the  tributestipulated  by  Shalma- 
neser ;  but  an  angel  of  Jehovah  slew 
one  hundred  and  eighty-five  thou- 
sand of  his  troops.  (2  Kings  xix.  3.5.) 
Sennacherib  returned  to  Nineveh, 
where  two  of  his  sons,  weary  of  his 
tyranny  and  savage  temper,  slew 
him  while  he  was  worshipping  in 
the  temple  of  Nisroch  his  god,  and 
immediately  fled  into  the  mountains 
of  Armenia.  (2  Kings  xix.  37.  Tobit 
i.  21.)  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Esarhaddon. 

Athens,  the  capital  of  Attica,  and 
the  chief  city  of  ancient  Greece.  It 
was  distinguished  by  the  military 
talents,  but  still  more  by  the  learn- 
ing, eloquence,  and  politeness  of 
its  inhabitants.  Saint  Paul  coming 
hither,  a.  d.  32,  found  them  plunged 
In  idolatry,  occupied  in  inquiring 
and  reporting  news,  curious  to  know 

32* 


every  thing,  and  divided  in  opinion 
concerning  religion  and  happiness. 
(Acts  xvii.)  The  great  apostle  of 
the  Gentiles,  taking  opportunities 
liere  to  preach  Jesus  Christ,  was 
carried  before  the  judges  of  the  tri- 
bunal, called  the  Areopagus  ;  where 
he  gave  an  illustrious  testimony  to 
truth,  and  a  remarkable  instance  of 
powerful  reasoning.  (See  an  account 
of  the  Areopagus  in  p.  194,  supra.) 

Attalia,  a  maritime  city  of  Pam- 
phylia,  and  the  chief  residence  of 
the  prefect.  It  derived  its  name 
from  king  Attalus,  its  founder. 
Hither  St.  Paul  went  from  Perga  in 
Pamphylia.     (Acts  xiv.  25.) 

AzoTcs,  or  AsHDOD,  a  city  of  Judaea, 
is  situated  between  Gaza  and  Jam- 
nia,  or  Jafnia,  in  a  pleasant  plain. 
Here  the  ark  of  Jehovali  triumphed 
over  the  Philistine  idol  Dagon,  (1 
Sam.  V.  2,)  and  Philip  th^vangelist 
was  found,  after  he  had  baptized  the 
Ethiopian  eunuch.  (Acts  viii.  40.) 
It  is  at  present  an  inconsiderable 
place. 


Babylon,  the  metropolis  of  the 
Chaldaean,  or  Babylonish  Empire, 
was  situated  on  the  river  Euphrates, 
and  was  celebrated  for  its  extent 
and  for  the  magnificence  of  its  edi- 
fices. The  most  terrible  denuncia- 
tions were  uttered  against  it  by  the 
Hebrew  Prophets,  especially  Isaiah; 
the  literal  fulfilment  of  whose  pre- 
dictions has  been  shown  by  various 
modern  travellers. 

Bashan,  or  BATANiEA.  See  p.  164, 
supra. 

Berha,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  where 
Paul  preached  the  Gospel  with  great 
success.     Acts  xviii.  10. 

Besor,  Brook.     See  p.  173,  supra. 

Bethany,  a  town  of  Judaea,  where 
Lazarus  dwelt,  and  where  he  was 
raised  from  the  dead,  was  fifteen 
furlongs  east  from  Jerusalem,  on  the 
way  to  Jericho.  (John  xi.  8.)  But 
the  tract  of  ground  which  bore  that 
name  reached  within  eight  furlongs 
of  Jerusalem,  it  being  only  a  sab- 
bath-day's journey  from  it  ;  (Luke 
xxiv.  .50.  Acts  i.  12 ;)  and  then  be- 
gan the  tract  called 

Bethphage,  from  the  (payoi,  that 
is,  the  green  figs,  that  grew  upon  it, 
which  ran  along  so  near  to  Jerusa- 
lem, that  the  utmost  street  within 


378 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


the  walls  was  called  by  that  name,  i 
Bethlehem  was  a  celebrated  city 
about  six  miles  south-west  from  Je- 
rusalem. In  Matt.  ii.  1.5.  it  is  called 
Bethlehem  of  Juda;a,  to  distinguish 
it  from  another  town  of  the  same 
name  situated  in  Lower  Galilee,  and 
mentioned  in  Josh.  xix.  15.  In  Luke 
ii.  4,  it  is  called  the  city  of  David, 
because  David  was  born  and  educa- 
ted there.  (Compare  John  vii.  42, 
and  1  Sam.  xvi.  1.  18.)  This  city, 
though  not  considerable  for  its  ex- 
tent or  riches,  is  of  great  dignity  as 
the  appointed  birth-place  of  the 
Messiah.  (Matt.  ii.  6.  Luke  ii.  6— 
15.1 

Bethsaida  was  the  name  of  two 
towns  or  villages. 

1.  Bethsaida  of  Galilee  was  situa- 
ted in  Galilee,  on  the  western  shore 
of  the  lake  of  Gennesareth,  a  little 
south  of  Capernaum.  It  was  the 
birth-place  of  the  Apostles  Philip, 
Andrew,  and  Peter. 

2.  The  other  Bethsaida  lay  in 
Gaulonitis,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
lake,  and  near  the  place  where  the 
Jordan  enters  it.  This  town  was 
enlarged  by  Philip,  tetrarch  of  that 
region,  who  called  it  Julias,  in 
honour  of  Julie^  llie  daughter  of 
Augustus. 

BiTHYNiA,  a  region  of  Asia  Minor, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Euxine 
Sea,  on  the  south  by  Phrygia,  on  the 
west  by  the  Propontis,  and  on  tlie 
east  by  Galatia.  Saint  Peter  ad- 
dressed his  first  epistle  (among 
other.s)  to  the  Hebrew  Christians 
who  were  scattered  throughout  Bi- 
thynia.    (1  Pet.  i.  1.) 


CesARBA  OF  Palestine,  so  called 
as  being  the  metropolis  of  Palestine 
and  the  residence  of  the  Roman  pro- 
consul, was  formerly  named  the 
tower  of  Strato  ;  but  Its  harljour  be- 
ing extremely  incommodious,  Herod 
the  Great  erected  a  spaciou.s  mole, 
and  greatly  enlarged  and  beautified 
the  city,  which  he  denominated 
Cffsarea,  In  honour  of  the  emperor 
Auguslus.  It  Is  very  frequently 
mentioned  In  the  New  Testament ; 
and  w  as  about  Ihlrly-five  miles  from 
Jerusalem. 

C^iHAnEA  PniLippi  (formerly  called 
Paneu.s)  was  situated  at  the  foot  of 
mount  Paneas,  near  the  springs  of 


the  Jordan.  It  was  at  first  called 
LaisorLechem,  (Judg.  xviii.  7,)  and 
after  it  was  subdued  by  the  Danites, 
(V.  29,)  it  received  the  appellation  of 
Dan.  Caesareawas  a  day's  journey 
from  Sidon;  a  day  and  a  half  from 
Damascus.  Philip  the  tetrarch  built 
it,  or,  at  least,  embellished  and  en- 
larged it,  and  named  it  Cae&area,  in 
honour  of  Tiberius ;  afterwards,  in 
compliment  to  Nero,  it  was  called 
Neronias.  The  woman  who  was 
troubled  with  an  issue  of  blood,  and 
healed  by  our  Saviour,  (Matt.  ix.  20. 
Luke  viii.  43,)  is  said  to  have  been 
of  Caesarea  Philippi, 

Cana,  a  small  town  of  Galilee, 
situated  on  a  gentle  eminence  to  the 
west  of  Capernaum,  Here  Jesus 
Christ  performed  the  miracle  of 
turning  water  into  wine.  (John  IL 
7—10.) 

Canaan,  Land  of  See  p.  159, 
supra. 

Capernaum,  a  town  of  Galilee, 
situated  on  the  coast  of  the  Lake  of 
Gennesareth,  on  the  borders  of  the 
tract  occupied  by  the  tribes  of  Zebu- 
lun  and  Nephthalim.  This  place  Is 
celebrated  for  the  matiy  mighty 
tcorks  and  discourses  performed  by 
our  Saviour,  which  brought  a  heavy 
wo  upon  the  inhabitants  for  their 
infidelity.    (Matt.  xi.  23.) 

Cappadocia,  a  fertile  region  of 
Asia  Minor,  mentioned  in  Acts  ii.  9, 
and  also  by  the  apostle  Peter,  who 
addresses  his  first  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brew Christians  who  were  dispersed 
throusrh  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappado- 
cia, Bilhynia,  and  Asia  Minor. 

Cakmel,  Mount.  See  p.  176,  su- 
pra. 

Cedron  or  Kedbon,  Brook.  See  p. 
173,  supra. 

Cknchrea,  a  haven  on  the  east  of 
the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  to  which  city 
it  was  considered  as  a  kind  of  subsi- 
diary port.  It  is  mentioned  in  Acta 
xviii.  18. 

Chald^a,  a  country  of  Asia,  lying 
near  tlie  junction  of  the  Tigris  and 
Eui)lnatfs,  the  capital  of  which  was 
Bahyi.on,  whence  it  was  also  deno- 
minaltil  Babylonia.  In  ancient  limes 
it  was  known  by  the  names  Shlnar, 
Shinaar,  &c. 

Chios  (Acts  XX.  15,)  Is  an  Island  of 
the  JEgeau  Sea,  betwi'on  Lesbos  and 
Snmos,  celebrated  In  ancient  and  In 
modern  tliiies,  for  its  wine,  fig^ 
marble,  and  white  earth. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


379 


Chittim.  The  land  of  Chittim, 
and  the  isles  of  Chittim,  denote  in 
general,  the  maritime  countries  and 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  Greece, 
Italy,  Crete,  Cyprus,  Corsica,  &c. 

Chorazin,  a  small  town  situated 
on  the  western  coast  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  at  no  great  distance  from 
Capernaum.  It  was  one  of  those 
places  where  very  many  of  our  Sa- 
viour's miracles  were  performed, 
whose  inhabitants  he  upbraided  for 
their  infidelity.  (Matt.  xi.  21.  Luke 
X.  13.) 

CiLiciA,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor, 
between  Parnphylia  on  the  west, 
and  Pieria  on  the  east,  the  Mount 
Taurus  on  the  north,  and  the  Cili- 
cian  Sea  on  the  south,  celebrated  on 
the  account  of  Cicero,  proconsul 
there,  but  more  on  the  account  of 
St.  Paul's  birth  at  Tarsus,  a  city  of 
Cilicia.  (Acts  xxii.  3.) 

Clauda,  an  island  near  Crete,  situ- 
ated near  the  southern  and  western 
sea.  It  is  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii. 
16  ;  as  also  is 

Cnidus,  (xxvii.  7,)  which  was  a 
city  and  promontory  of  Paria,  me- 
morable for  the  worship  of  Venus. 

C0L0SS.E,  or  CoLAssiE,  was  a  city 
of  Phrygia  Pacatiana  in  Asia  Minor, 
situated  near  the  conflux  of  the  Ly- 
cus  and  the  Meander,  not  far  from 
the  cities  of  Hierapolis  and  Laodi- 
cea,  with  which  it  was  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake,  not  long  after  St. 
Paul  wrote  his  epistle  to  the  Coios- 
sians. 

Coos,  an  island  in  the  JEgean  Sea, 
lying  off  the  coast  of  Caria  in  Asia 
Minor,  near  the  cities  of  Myndos 
and  Cnidus.  It  is  mentioned  in  Acts 
xxi.  1. 

Corinth,  the  metropolis  of  Achaia 
Proper,  was  situated  on  the  isthmus 
which  connects  the  Peloponnesus 
with  the  main  land.  It  was  distin- 
guished as  the  seat  of  commerce, 
arts,  and  wealth.  St.  Paul  resided 
here  for  some  time,  about  a.  d.  52. 
and  collected  a  Christian  Church, 
the  numerous  members  of  which 
were  not  afterwards  exempt  from 
the  common  vices  of  the  place. 

Cyprus,  an  island  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  situated  between  Cilicia 
and  Syria,  and  anciently  celebrated 
for  the  profligacy  of  its  inhabitants, 
whose  principal  deity  was  the  im- 
pure goddess  Venus.  Here  Paul  and 
Barnabas  landed,  a.  d.  44,  and  suc- 


cessfully preached  the  Gospel.  (Acts 
xiii.  4.  et  seq.  xxi.  3.) 

Cyrene,  the  principal  city  of  the 
province  of  Lybia  in  Africa,  which 
was  thence  sometimes  demonstrated 
Cyrenaica,  and  which,  by  the  evan- 
gelist Luke,  is  paraphraslically  call- 
ed Lybia  about  Cyrene.  (Acts  ii.  10  ) 


Dalmantjtha.  See  Magdala. 

Damascus,  a  city  of  Syria,  situated 
in  the  valley  belween  Libanus  and 
Antilibanus,  watered  by  the  rivers 
Abana  and  Pharphar.  (2  Kings  v. 
12.)  It  is  celebrated  for  its  antiquity, 
and  for  being  still  one  of  the  richest 
and  most  magnificent  cities  of  the 
Levant,  but  most  of  all  for  being  the 
place  of  the  miraculous  conversion 
of  St.  Paul. 

Dead  Sea.     See  p.  174.  supra. 

Decapolis.     See  p.  165.  supra. 

Derbe,  a  city  of  Lycaonia,  near 
Isauria,  not  far  from  the  Cilician 
range  of  Mount  Taurus.  It  was  the 
country  of  Timothy,  and  is  mention- 
ed in  Acts  xiv.  6. 

Ebal  (Mount.)    See  p.  177.  supra. 

Egypt,  a  countiy  of  Africa,  bound- 
ed on  the  east  by  Arabia  Petrsea  and 
the  Red  Sea,  or  Arabian  gulf ;  on 
the  west,  by  Lybia,  and  Marmarica ; 
on  the  south  by  Ethiopia,  and  on  the 
north  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  In 
the  earliest  times,  this  country  was 
divided  into  Upper  Egypt,  or  The- 
bais,  (the  Pathros  of  Scripture,)  and 
Lower  Egypt.  The  whole  region 
was  known  to  the  ancient  Hebrews 
by  the  name  of  Mizraim  ;  and  the 
princes  who  governed  it,  were,  in 
virtueof  their  office,  styled  Pharaohs, 
or  kings,  until  the  time  of  Solomon, 
after  which  they  are  designated  in 
the  Scriptures  by  their  proper  names. 
After  the  captivity,  Egypt  became  a 
place  of  great  resort  to  the  Jews. 

Elah,  Valley  of.  See  p.  178.  us- 
pra. 

EMSfAus,  asmall  village  of  Judaea, 
distant  sixty  furlongs  from  Jerusa- 
lem. It  is  memorable  for  the  very 
interesting  conversation  between  Je- 
sus Christ  and  two  of  his  disciples 
in  the  evening  of  the  day  of  his  re- 
surrection.    (Luke  xxiv.) 

Ephesus,  a  city  on  the  western 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  metro- 
polis of  the  proconsular  Asia,  was 
celebrated  for  the  magnificent  tem- 


380 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


pie  erected  there  in  honour  of  Diana. 
In  the  time  of  Saint  Paul,  this  city 
abounded  with  orators  and  philoso- 
phers ;  and  iis  inhabitants,  in  their 
Gentile  stale,  were  celebrated  for 
their  idolatry  and  skill  in  magic,  as 
well  as  for  their  luxuiy  and  lascivi- 
ousness.  Ephesus  is  now  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Turks,  and  is  ui  a 
state  of  almost  total  ruin. 

Ephraim,  a  considerable  city  of 
Judaea,  eight  miles  north  of  Jerusa- 
lem, and  near  a  desert  of  the  same 
name  ;  to  which  Jesus  Christ  retired 
after  he  had  raised  Lazarus  from  the 
dead.  (Jolui  xi.  54.) 


Gadara,  the  metropolis  of  Peroea, 
or  the  region  beyond  Jordan,  was 
situated  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
lake  of  Gennesareth,  opposite  to  Ti- 
berias, from  which  it  was  about  7 
or  8  miles  distant.  Few  of  its  inha- 
bitants were  Jews. 

Galatia,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
bounded  on  tlie  west  by  Phrygia,  on 
tire  east  by  tlie  river  Ilalys,  on  the 
north  by  Paphlagonia,  and  on  the 
south  by  Lycaonia.  The  Galatians 
were  the  descendentsof  those  Gauls 
who,  finding  their  own  country  too 
small  to  support  its  redundantpopu- 
lation,  emigrated  from  it  after  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  b.  c. 
278.  During  the  reign  of  Augustus 
(A.  u.  c.  529.  B.  c.  26.)  Galatia  was 
reduced  into  a  Roman  province,  and 
was  thenceforh  governed  by  the  Ro- 
man laws,  under  the  administration 
of  a  pioproetor.  This  country  was 
the  seat  of  colonies  from  various  na- 
tions, among  whom  were  many 
Jews ;  and  from  all  these  St.  Paul 
appears  to  have  made  numerous 
converis  to  Christianity.  (Gal.  i.  2. 
1  Cor.  xvi.  1.  1  Tim.  iv.  10.  I  Pet. 
1.  1.) 

Galilee,  Upper  and  Lower.  See 
p.  163.  supra. 

Galilee,  Sea  of.  Seep.  \74.  supra. 

Gaulonitis.     Seep.  1G4.  supra. 

Gaza,  a  very  celebrated  city  of  the 
Jews,  distant  about  60  miles  south- 
west from  Jerusalem  :  it  was  one  of 
the  five  cities  of  the  Philestines, 
which  f.-'U  by  lot  to  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dab.  (Josh.  xv.  47.  The  city  of  (Jaza, 
munlioned  in  Act-s  vill.  26,  was  erect- 
ed near  the  site  of  old  Gaza,  which, 
after  being  taken  by  Alexander  the 


Great,  was  subsequently  destroyed 
(b.  c.  96,)  by  Alexander  Jannsus,  a 
prince  of  tlie  Jews. 

Gennesareth,  the  name  of  a  re- 
gion and  lake,  in  the  vicinity  of 
which  were  several  towns,  where 
Jesus  Christ  dwelt,  taught,  and  per- 
formed miracles.  See  a  notice  of  the 
hike  of  Gennesareth  in  p.  174.  stt- 
pra. 

Gergesa,  a  city  annexed  to  Persea, 
and  supposed  to  have  been  situated 
in  the  countiy  adjacent  to  Gadara. 
(Matt.  viii.  28.  Luke  viii.  26.) 

Gepizim,  Mount.  See  p.  177.  «m- 
pra. 

Gethsemane,  a  garden  beyond  Ke- 
dron,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Olivet,  so 
called  from  the  wine-presses  in  it : 
it  is  memorable  in  the  evangelical 
history,  as  being  the  scene  of  our 
Saviour's  agony. 

GiLEAD,  Mountains  of.  See  p.  236. 
supra. 

Golgotha.     See  p.  222.  supra. 

Gomorrah,  one  of  the  cities  which 
formerly  occupied  the  region  now 
covered  by  the  Dead  Sea,  for  the 
history  of  its  destruction  see  Gen. 
xix. 

Greece,  in  the  Scriptures,  often 
comprehends  all  the  countries  inha- 
bited by  the  descendants  of  Javan, 
as  well  in  Greece  as  in  Ionia,  £ind 
Asia  Minor.  Since  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander lire  Great,  the  name  of  Greeks 
is  taken  in  a  more  uncertain  and 
enlarged  sense,  because  the  Greeks 
being  masters  of  Egypt  and  Syria, 
of  the  countiies  beyond  the  Eu- 
phrates, «Scc.  the  Jews  called  all 
those  Gentiles  Greeks. 


IIebron,  a  city  of  Judoea,  was  situ- 
ated on  an  eminence,  twenty  miles 
southward  of  Jerusalem,  and  twenty 
miles  north  from  Beersheba.  It  was 
a  place  of  considerable  note  in  the 
early  history  of  the  Hebrews.  Here 
Zechnriah  and  Elizabeth  resided, 
and  John  the  Baptist  was  born. 

HiEKAr-oLis,  a  city  of  Phrygia,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Colosse  andLoadicea. 
(Col.  iv.  13.) 

IIiNNOM,  Valley  of.  See  p.  238. 
supra. 

Holy  Land.     See  p.  213.  supra. 

Horeb,  a  mountain  in  Ara))ia  Pe- 
trajo,  sonear  mount  SInul  tliat  Horeb 
and  Slued  seem  to  be  two  lillls  of 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


381 


the  same  mountain.    (Exod.  iii.  I — 
3.  xvii.  6.  1  Kings  xix.  80 


JtjDAH,  Desert  of.    See  p.  180,  su- 
pra. 
Kingdom  of.    See  p.  162, 


supra. 


IcoNiuM,  a  large  city  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor :  here  St.  Paul  preached  in  the 
Jewish  Synagogue,  and  made  many 
proselytes.     (Acts  xiv.  1—3.) 

Illyricum,  a  province  lying  to  the 
north  and  north-west  of  Macedonia, 
along  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Adriatic  Gulf,  or  Gulf  of  Venice. 
Hither,  St.  Paul  informs  Timothy, 
Titus  went  (2  Tim.  iv.  10:  and  in 
Rom.  XV.  19,  he  says  that  he  preach- 
ed the  Gospel /ro7?i  Jerusalem  round 
about  tinto  lUyricum. 

Israel,  Land  of.  Seep'.  159,  sw- 
pra. 

,  Kingdom  of.    See  pp.  162, 

163.  supra. 

,  Mountains  of.     Seep.  176, 

supra. 

iTURiEA.     See  p.  164.  supra. 


Jabbok,  Brook.    See  p.  173,  supra. 

Jacob's  Well.     See  p.  233,  supra. 

Jericho,  a  celebrated  city  in  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin,  of  which  frequent 
mention  is  made  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment: it  was  about  19  miles  distant 
from  Jerusalem.  Tlie  country  around 
Jericho  was  the  most  fertile  part  of 
Palestine.  In  the  time  of  our  Sa- 
viour, Jericho  was  one  of  the  cities 
appropriated  for  the  residence  of  the 
priests  and  Levites,  12,000  of  Avhom 
dwelt  there ;  and  as  the  way  thither 
from  Jerusalem  was  rocky  and 
desert,  it  was  greatly  infested  with 
thieves  ;  this  circumstance  marks 
the  admirable  propriety  with  which 
our  Lord  made  it  the  scene  of  his 
beautiful  parable  of  the  good  Sama- 
ritan. (Luke  X.  30—37.)  It  is  now 
a  miserable  village. 

Jerusalem,  City  of.  See  pp.  165, 
168.  supra. 

Jezreel,  Plain  of  See  p.  179, 
supra. 

JoppA,  now  called  Jaffa,  was  an- 
ciently the  chief  part  of  Judaea :  it 
lies  on  the  Mediterranean,  about  west 
north-west  of  Jerusalem.  This  place 
Is  supposed  to  be  of  great  antiquity. 
The  Gospel  was  early  planted  here. 
(Acts  ix.,  X.,  xi.) 

Jordan,  River.    See  p.  172,  supra. 


Mountains  of,  175,  176. 
Wilderness  of,  ISO. 


JcD^ffiA,  Countiy  of.    See  p.   163, 
supra. 


Kana,  Brook  of.  See  p.  173,  su- 
pra. 

Kedron,  Cedron,  or  Kidron,  Brook 
of.     See  p.  173,  supra. 

KisHON,  Brook  of.  See  p.  173, 
supra. 

Land  of  Canaan,  159. 

Holy,  159,  160. 

of  Israel,  159. 

of  Promise,  159. 

Laodicea,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Colossae  and  Hierapo- 
lis ;  together  with  which  cities  it 
was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake, 
about  A.  D.  65  or  66.  Not  a  vestige 
of  its  former  magnificence  remains. 
(Col.  ii.  1.  iv.  13.  15,  16.   Rev.  i.  11.) 

Lasjea,  a  maritime  city  of  Crete, 
visited  by  St.  Paul.    (Acts  xxvii.  8.) 

Lebanon,  Mount  See  pp.  175,  176, 
supra. 

Libya,  a  region  of  Afiica,  lying 
west  of  Egypt,  on  the  southern  coast 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  (Acts 
ii.  10.) 

Lybonia,  a  region  of  Asia  Minor, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Galatia ; 
on  the  east  by  Cappadocia  ;  on  the 
south,  by  Isauria  and  Cilicia,  and 
on  the  west  by  Phrygia,  Of  its  va- 
rious cities,  Iconlum,  Derbe,  and 
Lystra,  are  mentioned  in  Acts  xiv.  6. 

Lydda,  a  large  village  of  Pales- 
tine, not  far  from  Joppa.  (Acts  ix. 
32.  34.  38.) 

Lystra,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  now 
called  Latik.  (Acts  xiv.  6.  8.  10, 11, 
21.  xvi.  1.) 


Macedonia,  a  region  lying  north 
of  Greece  Proper :  it  was  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  mountains  of 
Haemus,  on  the  south  by  Epirus  and 
Achaia,  on  the  east  by  the^Egean,  on 
the  west  by  the  Ionian  and  Adriatic 
seas.  To  this  country,  whose  me- 
tropolis was  then  Thessalonica,  St. 
Paul  was  called  by  a  vision ;  (Acts 


382 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


xvi.  9 ;)  and  the  churches  planted  by 
him  in  it,  are  celebrated  for  their 
great  cburity,  and  ready  contribu- 
tion to  ihe  distressed  Jews  in  Judaja. 
(2  Cor.  viii.  ix.) 

Magdala,  a  city  and  territory  be- 
yond Jordan,  on  the  western  side  of 
the  lake  Gennesareth.  It  reached  to 
the  bridge  above  Jordan,  which 
joined  it  to  the  other  side  of  Galilee, 
and  contained  within  its  precincis 
Dalmanutha  ;  hence,  while  Matthew 
says,  (XV.  19,)  Christ  come  into  the 
coasts  of  Magdala,  St.  Mark  says, 
more  particularly,  (viii.  10,)  that  he 
came  into  the  parts  of  Dalmanvtha. 
Media,  a  vast  region  of  Asia,  hav- 
ing on  the  north  the  Caspian  Sea, 
Q\\  the  West  Armenia  and  Assyria, 
on  the  south  Persia,  on  the  enstHyr- 
cania  and  Parthia.  In  the  IJabj'lo- 
nian  captivity,  the  Jews  were  carried 
captive  into  Assyria,  and  placed  in 
the  cities  of  the  Medes.  (2  Kings 
xvii.  6.  and  xviii.  11.)  Hence,  we 
find  many  of  them  and  their  prose- 
lytes at  Jerusalem,  when  the  Holy 
Ghost  fell  on  the  apostles.  (Actsii.  9.) 
Memte,  or  Malta,  an  island  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  on  which  St. 
Paul  was  wrecked.  (Acts  xxviii.  1.) 
ME.SOPOTAMIA,  a  famous  province, 
situated  between  the  rivers  Tigris 
and  Euphrates.  The  Hebrews  call 
It  Aram  Naharaivi,  or  Aram  of  the 
rivers  ;  because  it  was  first  peopled 
by  Aram,  father  of  the  Syrians,  and 
Is  situated  between  two  rivers. 

MiDiAN,  in  Arabia  Petra^a,  the  land 
Into  which  Moses  fled  from  the 
Egyptians.  (Acts  vii.  29.)  Here  Je- 
thro  lived.  (Exod.  xii.  11.) 

MiGDoi>,  a  frontier  town  of  Lower 
Egypt,  toward  the  Red  Sea,  between 
which  and  that  sea  the  Israelites  en- 
camped. (Exod.  xiv.  1.) 

Miletus,  a  seaport  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  a  city  of  Ionia,  where  Saint  Paul 
delivered  to  the  elders  of  the  church 
of  Ephesus,  that  affecting  discourse 
which  Is  recorded  In  Acts  xx.  17— 
35.  There  was  another  Miletus  In 
Crete,  where  St.  Paul  left  Trophl- 
mus  sick.  (2  Tim.  iv.  20.) 

MiTYi.ENB,  a  celebratf^d  city,  the 
capital  of  the  island  of  Lesbos.  It 
wiis  vi.^lifdby  St.  Paul,  as  related  In 
Arts  x.\.  14. 

MvKA,  a  city  on  the  coast  of  Lycio, 
one  of  ihe  southwestern  provinces 
of  AHla  Minor.  (Acts  xxvil.  6.) 
Myhia,  the  north-western  province 


of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Bithynia,  on  the  easl 
by  Phrygia  Minor,  on  the  west  by 
Troas,  on  the  south  by  the  river 
Hermus. 


Nain,  a  small  city  or  town  of  Ga- 
lilee, not  far  from  Capernaum,  at  the 
gates  of  which  Jesus  Christ  raised 
to  life  a  widow's  only  son.  (Luke  vii 
11—15.) 

Nazareth,  a  small  city  of  Low- 
er Galilee,  celebrated  as  having 
been  the  place  where  our  Saviour 
was  educated,  where  he  preached 
and  whence  he  was  called  a  Naza- 
rene. 

Nebo.  Seep,  ns,  supra. 

Nineveh,  the  metropolis  of  the 
Assyrian  empire.  It  was  celebrated 
for  its  extent,  magnificence,  and  the 
vast  number  of  its  inhabitants.  Its- 
site  can  no  longer  be  ascertadned. 


Olives,  Mount  of,  a  ridge  lying 
east  of  Jerusalem  (of  which  it  had 
a  commanding  view,)  and  separated 
from  it  by  the  valley  of  the  Cedion. 

OpHiR,  a  country  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Africa,  (by  the  Arabians 
termed  Zanguebar  ;)  most  proliably 
thesmall  country  of  Sofala,  whither 
Solomon  sent  a  fleet  aided  by  the 
subjects  of  Hiram  king  of  Tyre,  and 
from  which  they  brought  back  gold. 
(1  Kings  ix.  27,  2S.  2  Chron.  viii.  17, 
18.)  and  also  alvixtg  trees  and  pre- 
cious stojies.  (1  Kings  X.  11.) 


Pale.stine.     See  page  160,  svpra. 

Pamphvlia,  a  province  of  Asia 
Minor,  having  to  the  south  thePam- 
phylian  sen,  mentioned  Acts  xxvii. 
5.  Cilicia  to  the  east,  Pisidin  to  the 
n(irlh  (whence  we  find  Saint  Paul 
passing  through  PIsidia  to  Pnmiiliy- 
lia,  Ac;s  Alv.  2  !,  and  from  Pamphylla 
to  Pi.sidia,  Acts  xiil.  1-1.)  and  Lycia 
to  the  Wf.«t.  The  citle.'-  nitiitioned 
In  the  Scripture  as  belonging  lo 
II,  are  Perga  and  Atlalia.  (Acts  xiiL 
13.) 

Paphos,  the  metropolis  of  the 
island  of  Cypru.s  (Acta  xiil.  1.  6,) 
and  tli<!  residence  (if  the  i)roconsul 
Numerous  Jews  dwell  here. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


383 


Parthians,  mentioned  in  Acts  ii. 
9,  were  Jews,  who  were  born  or  re- 
sided in  Parthia,  a  region  of  Asia  sit- 
uated between  Media  and.  Mesopota- 
mia. 

Patara,  a  maritime  city  of  Lycia, 
mentioned  in  Acts  xxi.  1. 

Patmos,  an  island  in  the  iEgean 
Sea,  whitlier  the  apostle  and  evange- 
list John  was  banished,  a.d.  94^  and 
where  he  had  llie  revelations  which 
he  has  recorded  in  the  Apocalypse. 

Per^a.     See  p.  164  supra. 

Pergamus,  a  city  of  Mysia,  and  the 
capital  of  the  powerful  kingdom  of 
Pergamus  :  it  was  celebrated  for  the 
noble  library  collected  by  the  kings 
oftheraceof  Attalus.  (Rev.  i.  11,  ii. 
12.) 

Phakpar.     See  Abana,  p.  375. 

Philadelphia,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor, 
derived  its  name  from  its  founder, 
Attalus  Philadelphus.  and  is  situated 
about  twenty-seven  miles  to  the 
south-east  of  Sardis.  Not  long  before 
the  date  of  the  Apocalyptic  Epistle, 
this  city  had  suffered  so  much  from 
earthquakes,  that  it  had  been  in  a 
great  measure  deserted  by  its  inhabi- 
tants ;  which  may  in  some  degree 
account  for  thepoverty  of  thischurch 
as  described  in  this  Epistle. 

Philippi  was  a  city  of  Macedonia 
pTima,  or  the  first  of  the  four  parts 
into  which  that  province  was  divi- 
ded. It  was  of  moderate  extent,  and 
situated  on  the  confines  of  Thrace. 
Christianity  was  first  planted  at 
Philippi,  by  Saint  Paul,  a.d.  50,  the 
particulars  of  which  are  related  in 
Acts  xvi.  9 — 40. 

Philistines.     See  p.  215,  supra. 

Phcenige,  or  Phoenix  a  city  and 
harbour  on  the  south-eastern  coast 
of  Crete.  (Acts  xxvii.  12.) 

Phcenigia,  or  Ph(enice,  a  narrow 
region  of  country  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  between 
Judaea  and  Syria.  Its  principal  cities 
were  Ptolemais,  Sidon,  and  Tyre. 

Phrygia,  an  inland  province  of 
Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Bithynia;  on  the  east  by  Galatia ; 
on  the  south  by  Pamphylia,  and 
Lycia ;  and  on  the  west  by  Lydia  and 
Mysia.  Its  chief  cities,  mentioned 
in  the  New  Testament,  are  Laodicea 
and  Hierapolis.  (Col.  ii.  1.) 

PisG  AH,  Mount.    Seep.  178,  supra. 

PisiDiA,  a  region  of  Asia  Minor, 
having  Pamphylia  on  the  south, 
Galatia  on  the  north,  Isauria  on  the 


east,  and  Phrygia  on  the  west.  Its 
chief  city  was  Antioch  in  Pisidia, 
(Actsxiii.  14,)  so  called  to  distinguish 
it  from  Antioch  in  Syria.  — 

PoNTus,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
having  the  Euxine  sea  on  the  north, 
Cappadocia  on  the  south,  Paphla- 
gonia  and  Galatia  on  the  east,  and 
the  Lesser  Armenia  on  the  west. 
(Acts  ii.  9.  1  Pet.  i.  1.) 

Pkoiuse,  Land  of.  Seep.  \B9  supra. 

Ptolemais,  anciently  called  Accho 
(Judg.  i.  31,)  and  now  known  by  the 
name  of  Acre,  is  situated  on  the  shore 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  on  the  con- 
fines of  Lower  and  Upper  Galilee. 
Here  St.  Paul  rested  for  one  day  on 
his  journey  from  Ephesus  to  Jerusa- 
lem.  (Acts  xxi.  7.) 

PtTTEOLi  (at  present  called  Pozzuo- 
lo)  a  city  and  haven  in  the  kingdom 
of  Naples,  eight  miles  from  that  city. 
(Acts  xxvni.  13.) 


Rama,  Ramah,  or  Ramathaim,  a 
small  town  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 
a  few  miles  north  of  Jerusalem, 
between  Gibeah  and  Bethel.  It  is 
frequently  mentioned  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. 

Ramoth,  a  famous  city  in  the 
mountains  of  Gilead,  often  called 
Ramoth-gilead,  and  sometimes  Ra- 
moth, and  sometimes  Ramoth- miz- 
peh,  or  the  Watch-Tower,  (Josh, 
xiii.  26.)  This  city  belonged  to  the 
tribe  of  Gad.  It  was  assigned  to  the 
Levites,  and  was  one  of  the  cities  of 
refuge  beyond  Jordan.  (Deut.  iv. 
43.  Josh.  XX.  8,  and  xxi.  38.) 

Red  Sea,  called  also  the  Arabian 
Gulf,  separates  Egypt  on  the  west 
from  Arabia  on  the  east.  The  name 
in  Hebrew  signifies  the  "weedy  sea," 
or  the  sea  of  weeds  ;  (which  appel- 
lation it  still  retains  in  the  Coptic 
language.)  It  is  thus  denominated 
either  from  the  variety  of  sea-weeds 
said  to  be  visible  on  its  shores  at 
low  water,  or  from  the  quantity  of 
white  coral,  spread  everywhere  over 
its  bottom.  We  derive  the  name 
"  Red  Sea"  from  the  Greeks.  Most 
probably  this  sea  was  anciently 
called  the  sea  of  Edom,  from  its 
neighbouring  coast:  and  as  Edom 
signifies  Red  in  Hebrew,  the  Greeks, 
not  understanding  the  meaning  of 
the  appellation,  translated  it,  as  we 
have  done  after  them,  the  Red  Sea. 


384 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


RHBGirM,  a  seaport  town  In  Italy, 
oppo.^ile  to  Sicily.     (Acts  xxviii.  13.1 

Khooes,  the  capital  of  an  island 
of  the  same  name,  lying  off  the 
coast  of  Caria.     (Acts.  xxi.  I.) 

Ro.ME,  the  celebrated  metropolis 
of  the  Roman  Empire. 


Salt  sea.  See  p.  174,  supra. 
Samaria,    Region  ofl     See  p.  163, 
supra. 

Samaria,  City  of  the  ancient  capi- 
tal of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  was  situ- 
ated on  a  hill  which  derived  its 
name  from  Semer  or  Shenier,  of 
whom  it  was  purchased  by  Omri, 
king  of  Israel,  b.  c.  921,  who  made 
it  the  seat  of  his  government,  and 
called  it  Samaria,  (Heb.  Shomtron,) 
from  its  former  owner.  By  his  suc- 
cessors it  was  greatly  improved  and 
fortified.  After  having  been  destroy- 
ed by  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria, 
and  rebuilt  during  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander, B.  c.  449,  it  was  again  de- 
stroyed by  John  Ilyrcanus.  It  was 
afterwards  wholly  rebuilt,  and  con- 
siderably enlarged  by  Herod,  sur- 
named  the  Great,  who  gave  it  the 
name  of  Sebasle,  and  erected  a  tem- 
ple there  in  honour  of  the  Emperor 
Augustus. 

Samos,  an  island  of  the  Archipe- 
lago, on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor. 
(Acts.  XX.  15.) 

Samotiiracia,  an  Island  of  the 
JEgean  Sea,  Saint  Paul,  departing 
from  Troas  for  Macedonia,  arrived 
first  atSamothracia,  and  then  landed 
In  Macedonia.    (Acts  xvi.  11.) 

Sardks,  the  capital  ofLydia,  was 
situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Tmolus,  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Pactolus:  it  was  celebrated  for  the 
■wealth,  and  for  the  voluptuous  and 
debauched  manners  of  its  inhab- 
itants. (Rev.  1.  U,  lii.  1.  4.)  Sar- 
dis  is  at  present  reduced  to  a  mi- 
serable village,  called  Sart. 

Sarepta,  orZarephath,  (Luke  Iv. 
26,)  was  a  city  in  the  territory  of 
Sldon,  between  that  city  and  Tyre, 
(1  Kings,  xvil.  9.     Luke  Iv.  26.) 

Saron,  a  spacious  and  fertile  vale, 
between  Lydda  and  the  sea,  which 
contained  several  villages.  (Acts 
Ix.  35  ) 

8HU8HAN,  the  capital  of  Suslana, 
a  province  of  Elam  or  Persia,  which 
Daniel  terms  the  palace,  (vlll.  2,) 
t>ccau8e  the   Chaldsean  monarcha 


had  a  royal  palace  here.  This  once 
splendid  metropolis  Is  now  a  mere 
wilderness. 

SicHEM,  Sychar,  or  Shechem,  a 
city  of  Samaria^  about  forty  miles 
distar.l  from  Jerusalem,  which  be- 
came the  metropolis  of  the  Samari- 
tans after  the  destruction  of  Samaria 
by  Hyrcanus.  In  the  vicinity  of 
this  place  is  Jacob's  well,  (John  Iv. 
6,)  memorable  for  our  Saviour's  con- 
versation with  the  Samaritan  wo- 
man. 
SiDDiM,  vale  of.  See  p.  178,  supra. 
SiDON,  or  ZiDON,  a  very  ancient 
and  celebrated  port  and  city,  origi- 
nally the  metropolis  of  Phoenicia,  is 
situated  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
Sidon  has  always  been  famous  for 
its  great  trade  and  navigation ;  at 
present  it  is  called  Said. 

SmoR   River.     See  p.  173,  supra. 
SiLOAM,    Fountain.      See    p.  175, 
supra, 

Sinai,  a  mountain  In  Arabia 
Peirae,  where  the  law  was  given. 
It  had  two  tops  :  the  one  lower,  call- 
ed Horeb,  or  the  Mount  of  God, 
(Exod.  ili.  1,)  where  he  appeared  to 
Moses  in  a  flame  of  fire  in  a  bush  ; 
this  Horeb  is  therefore  called  Sinai 
by  Saint  Stephen.  (Acts  vii.  30.) 
See  Horeb,  p.  380,  supra. 

Smyrna,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  was 
situated  between  forty  and  forty-five 
miles  to  the  north  of  Ephesus,  of 
which  city  it  was  originally  a  co- 
lony. It  was  one  of  the  most  opu- 
lent and  powerful  cities  of  that  re- 
gion ;  but  is  now  celebrated  chiefly 
for  the  number,  wealth  and  com- 
merce of  the  inhabitants. 

Sodom,  the  chief  of  the  Pentapoll- 
tan  cities,  or  five  cities  of  the  plain, 
gave  the  name  to  the  whole  land. 
It  was  burnt  with  three  other  cities, 
by  fire  from  heaven,  for  the  unna- 
tural lust5  of  their  Inhabitants. 
Sodom,  Scu  of.  See  p.  174,  supra. 
Syria,  the  name  of  a  large  district 
of  Asia,  lying  In  the  widest  arcepta- 
llon  of  the  name  between  Palestine, 
Mount  Taurus,  and  tlie  Tigris,  and 
thus  Including  Me6«)polanila,  or 
Syria  of  the  two  rivers,  (In  Hebrew, 
Aram  Nahnralm.)  In  the  New  Tes- 
tament, Syria  may  be  consldrn-d  as 
bounded  on  the  west  and  norih-west 
by  the  Medllerranenn  Sen,  and  by 
Mount  Taurus;  on  the  east  by  the 
Kuplirates:  and  on  the  south  by 
Arabia  Descrta  and  Palestine,  or 
rather  Judtca,  for  the  name  Syria, 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 


385 


includes  the  northern  part  of  Pales 
tine.  The  valley  between  the  ridges 
of  Libanus  and  Anli-Libanus.  was 
called  Coelo-Syria,  or  Coele-sjyria ; 
which  appellaiion  was  also  some- 
times exiendt3d  to  the  neighbouring 
country.  At  the  time  of  the  Jewish 
exile,  Syria  and  Phoenicia  were  sub- 
ject to  the  king  of  Babylon,  and 
they  afterward  were  tributary  to  the 
Persian  monarchs.  After  the  coun- 
try fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Ro- 
mans, Syria  was  made  the  province 
of  a  proconsul.  (Robinson's  Or.  £md 
English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, p.  731.) 

SyroPhoenicia  is  Phoenicia  pro- 
perly so  called,  of  which  Sidon  was 
the  capital  ;  which  having  by  right 
of  conquest  been  united  to  the  king- 
dom of  Syria,  added  its  old  name 
Phoenicia  to  that  of  Syria.  The  Ca- 
naanitish  woman  is  called  a  Syro- 
Phoenician,  (Mark  vii.  26,)  because 
6he  was  of  Phoenicia,  which  was 
then  considered  as  making  part  of 
Syria.  St.  Matthew  calls  her  a  Ca- 
naanitish  woman,  (Matt.  xv.  22.  24,) 
because  this  country  was  really 
peopled  by  the  Canaanites,  Sidon 
being  the  eldest  son  of  Canaan. 
(Gen.  X.  15.) 

Tabor,  or  Thabor,  Mount.  See  p. 
177,  supra. 

Tarsus,  a  rich  and  populous  city, 
the  capital  of  Cilicia.  It  was  cele- 
brated in  the  Scriptures  as  being  the 
place  whither  Jonah  designed  to 
flee,  and  where  St.  Paul  was  born. 

Thessalonica,  a  large  and  popu- 
lous city  and  seaport  of  Macedonia, 
the  capital  of  one  of  the  four  dis- 
tricts into  which  the  Romans  divided 
that  country  after  its  conquest  by 
Paulus  iEmilius.  It  wat>  situated  on 
the  Thermian  Bay,  and  was  an- 
cient'y  called  Thermae;  but,  being 
rebuilt  by  Philip,  the  father  of  Alex- 
ander, after  his  victory  over  the 
Thessaiians,  it  then  received  the 
name  of  Thessalonica.  It  was  in- 
habited by  Greeks,  Romans,  and 
Jews ;  from  among  whom  St.  Paul 
collected  a  numerous  church.  (Acts 
xvii.  1.  11.  13.) 

Thyatira,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor, 
was  a  considerable  city  on  the  road 
from  Pergamos  to  Sardis,  and  about 
48  miles  eastward  of  the  former.  It 
is  called  by  the  Turks  Ak-hisar. 

TiBERiDS,  (John  vi.  1—23.  xxi.  1,) 
aim  called  by  the  natives  Tabaria, 

33 


or  Tabbareean,  was  anciently  one 
of  the  principal  cities  of  Galilee  :  it 
was  built  by  Herod  the  Great,  and 
so  called  in  honour  of  the  emperor 
Tiberius.  The  privileges  conferred 
upon  its  inhabitants  by  Herod,  caus- 
ed it  in  a  short  time  to  become  a 
place  of  considerable  note:  it  was 
situated  in  a  plain  near  the  lake  of 
Gennesareth,  which  is  thence  term- 
ed the  Lake  or  Sea  of  Tiberias; 
for  a  notice  of  which  see  p.  174, 
supra. 

Trachonitis.     Seep.  164,  supra. 

Troas,  a  port  and  town  of  Mysia, 
visited  by  St.  Paul  in  his  apostolic 
journeys:  it  was  situated  on  the 
western  coast,  at  some  distance  to 
the  southward  of  the  supposed  site 
of  ancient  Troy. 

Trogyllium  (Acts  XX.  15,)  a  pro- 
montory at  the  fbot  of  Mount  My* 
cale,  opposite  to,  and  about  five 
miles  frc  ..  Samos. 

Type,  a  celebrated  city  and  sea- 
port of  Phoenicia,  mat  boasted  of  a 
very  early  antiquity.  Even  in  the 
time  of  Joshua  it  was  strongly  for- 
tified ;  for  it  is  called  the  strong  city 
Tyre.  (Josh.  xix.  29.)  After  the  time 
of  Davif?,  Tyre  is  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  Testament,  where 
its  inhabitants  are  represented  as 
filled  with  pride  and  luxury,  and  all 
the  vices  attendant  on  prosperity 
and  immense  wealth.  Judgments 
are  denounced  against  them  by  the 
prophets,  in  consequence  of  their 
idolatry  and  wickedness;  and  the 
destruction  of  their  city  is  foretold. 
After  this  destruction  the  great  body 
of  the  inhabitants  fixed  themselves 
on  an  island  opposite  the  former 
city,  about  30  stadia  from  the  main 
land,  where  they  erected  another 
city.  This  also  soon  became  opu- 
lent and  powerful  :  it  was  taken  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  after  an  obsti- 
nate siege  of  seven  months,  in  the 
year  332,  b.  c.  After  many  subse- 
quent reverses  of  fortune,  and  vari- 
ous changes  of  masters.  Tyre  at 
length  fell  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Romans,  and  continued  to  enjoy 
its  commercial  prosperity.  (Robin- 
son's Lexicon,  p.  772.)  Tyre  is  now 
a  miserable  place,  called  Sur,  whose 
inhabitants  support  themselves  by 
fishing. 

Zarephath.    See  Sarepta.  p.  384, 
supra. 
ZiJuoN.    See  Sidon,  p.  384,  bv^o. 


II. 


INDEX  OF  MATTERS. 


Abreviations  in  Manuscripts,  74,  75 

Abyssinian  Version,  87 

Acts  of  Uie  Apostles,  analysis  of,  321, 
3-22 

Affections  of  the  sacred  Writers,  im- 
porlance  of  attending  to,  126 

Agriculture  of  the.  Jews,  262—264 

Alexandrian  Manuscript,  75,  76 

Allegory,  Nature  of,  13');  Interpreta- 
tion of,  136.  Allegorical  sense, 
what.  140 

Amos,  Book  of,  297,  298 

Analogy  of  Scripture,  118—121:  of 
Faiit),  121.  Hints  for  investiga- 
ting it,  121-123 

Anglo-Saxon  Version,  89 

AntOMius  Felix,  notice  of,  189,  190 

Apocrypha,  nnport  of,  310.  Analy- 
sis of  the  Apocryphal  Books,  310, 
314 

Apostles  and  Evangelists,  credibility 
of  11  —  13 

Aquiliv,  Greek  Version  of,  86 

Arcli.'laus,  187,  188 

Archil  clure  of  the  Jews,  266 

Areopagus,  Tribunal  of,  194 

Armf^nian  Version,  87,  88 

Arts  aud  Sciences  of  the  Jews,  205 
—271 

Atonement,  fast  of,  240 

Autluuiiicity  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  4—8 


B 


Banishment,  a  Jewish  punishment, 

201 
Baruch,  apocryphal  book  of,  313 
llc'l  and  the  Dragon,  history  of  Uie 

destruction  of,  313 
nil)le.     Sf^  Scriptures. 
Ill  K.dy  Offerings,  231,  232 
llurlal,  Ultra  of,  272—275 
Burnt  OiTerings,  232 


Candlestick,  Golden,  217—221 
Canonical  Books,  what,  78,  79 
Catholic  Epistles,  Genuineness  and 
Authenticity  of,  339.    Analyses  of 
them,  340—347 
Caverns  of  the  Holy  Land,  179 
Chaldee  Paraphrases,  82,  83 
Chapters  and  Verses,  Orlgn  of  80, 81, 
List  of  select  chapters  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  355—369 
Children,  Birth,   Education,  &c.  of, 

256 
Christianity,  propagation  of,  14 — 43. 
Gibbon's  alleged  causes  of  its  suc- 
cess, refuted,  44,  45.     Its  rejection 
by  Jews  and  Gentiles  accounted 
for,  45,  46.     Its  blessed  effects  up- 
on  mankind,  58—60.     Its  superi- 
ority over   all   other  religions,  a 
proof  of  its  divine  origin,  60—62 
Chronicles,  two  Books  of,  285 
Chronological  Table  of  the  principal 
Epochs  In  the  History  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  364—368 
Climate  of  the  Holy  Land,  169 
Codex  Alexandrinus,  75,  76.    Vatl- 
canus,  76,  77.     Cantabriglensis,  78 
Coins,  testhnony  of  to  the  truth  of 

Scripture,  21—23 
Colossians,  Epistle  to,  331 
Commentators,  different  classes  o^ 
127.     Hints  on  the  best  mode  of 
consulting  them,  128 
Contiwt,  use  and  study  of,  116—118 
Contracts,  how  made.  20'J 
Corinthians,  rtrst  Epistle  to,  328— 329. 

Second  Epistle  to  them,  329 
Corruptions  of  Kellglon  among  the 

Jews,  245  -249 
Courts  of  Judicature,  191  —  193 
Credibility  of  lh»;   Old   Testament, 
10,  U;  and  of  iho  New,   11—14. 


INDEX  OF  MATTERS. 


387 


Testimonies  thereto  from  Natural 
and  Civil  History,  14—18,  and 
from  Profane  Writers,  19—21. 
Confirmed  by  Ancient  Coins,  Me- 
dals, and  Marbles,  21—23.  Credi- 
bility of  Miracles,  27—29 

Criminal  Law  of  the  Jews,  195—199. 
Execution  of  Criminals,  192,  193 

Crucifixion,  203 


Daniel,  Book  of,  305,  306 

Day  of  Atonement,  240 

Dead,  treatment  of,  272,  273 

Dedication,  feast  of,  241 

Deluge,  attested  by  Natural  and  Ci- 
vil History,  15 — 17 

Demoniacle  Possessions,  reality  of, 
270,  271 

Deserts  of  the  Holy  Land,  180,  181 

Deuteronomy,  Book  of,  280 

Divination,  197 

Diseases  mentioned  in  Scripture,  269 
—271 

Divisions  of  the  Bible,  78—82 

Divorce,  256 

Doctrinal  Interpretation  of  Scripture, 
149—151 

Doctrine  of  the  Patriarchal,  Mosaic, 
and  Christian  Religions,  summa- 
ry of,  47 — 53.  Objections  of  Un- 
believers to,  refuted,  53 — 58 

Domestic  Customs  of  the  Jews,  259 
—261 

Dress  of  the  Jews,  253,  254 

Drink  Offerings,  234 

Dwellings  of  the  Jews,  account  of, 
250—252 


E 


Ecclesiastes,  Book  of,  292 

Ecclesiasticus,  Book  of,  312 

Egyptian  Versions,  87 

Encampments  of  the  Jews,  form  of, 
211 

English  Translations  of  the  Bible, 
97—100 

Ephesians,  Epistle  to,  330,  331 

Epistolary  Writings  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, remarks  on,  324 — 326. 
Analyses  of,  326—334 

Esdras,  first  and  second  Books  of, 
310,  311 

Essenes,  sect  of,  247,  248 

Esther,  Book  of;  287.  Rest  of  the 
chapters  of  the  B<wk  of  Esther,  31 1 

Ethiopic  Version,  87 

Excommunication,  201 

Exodus,  Book  of,  277,  278 

Expiation,  fast  of,  240 


Ezekiel,  Book  of,  307,  308 
Ezra,  Book  of,  286 


Felix,  account  of,  190,  191 
Festivals  of  the  Jews,  237—242 
Festus,  account  of,  191 
Fertility  of  the  Holy  Land,  181 
Figurative  Language  of  Scripture 

Interpretation  of,  129—139 
Firstborn,  privileges  of,  256 
First  Fruits,  235 
Florus,  notice  of,  191 
Food   and    Entertainments    of  the 

Jews,  260,  261 
Fountains  of  Palestine,  175 
Funeral  Rites  of  the  Jews,  273—275 
Furniture  of  the  Jews,  252 


Galatians,  Epistle  to,  330 

Galileans,  sect  of,  248 

Gardens  of  the  Jews,  264 

Genesis,  Book  of,  276,  277 

Genuineness  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  4—8 

Geography,  Historical,  of  the  Holy 
Land,  158.  Physical  Geography, 
169—181 

Gibbon,  (Mr.)  objections  o^  refuted, 
44,  45 

Gospel,  import  of,  315.  Summary 
of  its  Doctrines  and  Precepts,  50 — 
53.  Objection  of  Unbelievers  to 
it,  refuted,  53—58.  Its  beneficial 
effects,  a  proof  of  Divine  inspira- 
tion, 53—60.  Number  of  the  Ca- 
nonical Gospels,  315.  Analyses 
of  them,  316 

Gothic  Version,  notice  of,  89 

Government,  form  of,  to  the  Babylo- 
nish Captivity,  182—186 ;  after 
that  Captivity,  to  the  end  of  the 
Jewish  Polity,  186—190 

Governors,  Roman,  powers  of,  189 

Greek  Language  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, account  of,  69,  70.  Greefc 
Manuscripts,  74—78 

Grinding  at  Mills,  264 


Habakkuk,  Book  of,  305 
Haggai,  Book  of,  308,  309 
Happiness  of  mankind,  promoted  by 

the  Scriptures,  58—60 
Harmony  of  Scripture,  58.     Uses  of 

Harmonies,  111,  112 
Hebraisms,  70 
Hebrew  Language,  account  o^  67— 


INDEX  OF  MATTERS. 


(J9.    Hebrew  Manuscripts,  71—73 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to,  338,  339 

Herod,  the  Great,  167 

Antipas,  168 

Agnppa,  Seiiior  andJunior, 

188 

Herodians,  Sect  of,  248 

High  Places,  222 

High  Priests,  account  of,  228—230 

Historical  Hooks,  Analyses  of,  280— 
286 

Historical  Circumstances,  impor- 
tance of,  for  the  interpretation  of 
Scripture,  123—126 

Historical  Sense,  113 

Holy  Land,  Names  of,  158-160. 
Boundaries,  161.  Ancient  Inhabi- 
tants, 161.  Divisions,  162—168. 
Physical  Geography,  169—181 

^losea.  Book  of,  298,  299 

Houses  of  the  Jews,  250 — 252 

Hyperbole.  140 


Idolatry  of  the  Jews.  195,  196,  245, 
246 

Imprisonment,  200  * 

Incense,  offering,  234,  235 

Infidelity,  unprofitableness  of,  62,  63. 
Infidels  more  credulous  than  Chris- 
tians, 63,  64 

Lispii  ation  denned,  24.  Criteria  of- 
24,  25.  Internal  Evidences  of,  47 
—64 

Interpretation  of  I-itcral,  Grammati- 
cal, or  Historical  Sense  of  Scrip- 
lure,  and  its  hubsidiary  means, 
113—128.  Interpretation  of  the 
figurative  Language  of  Scripture, 
129—139.  Spiritual  interpreta- 
tion 140—144.  Interpretation  of 
Prophecy,  144—149.  Do(ttiinal, 
Moral,  and  Practical  Interpreta- 
tion of  Scripture,  149—157. 

Irony,  139,  140 

Iflainh,  Book  of,  299—301 


James,  Epistle  of,  340,  341 

Jeremiah,  Analysis  of  the  Book  of, 
303,  304.     Lamentations  of,  305 

Jerusalem,  Description   of,  165— 1C8 

Jewish  Church  and  its  Members, 
225,  226 

Jews  infidelity  of,  accounted  for,  45, 
Pnlliical  state  of,  to  the  Babylo- 
nish Captivity,  182—186.  And 
after  that  time  to  their  destruc- 
tion, as  u  Nation,  186—189.  Cor 
luptlons  of  Religion  among,  246 


249.     Domestic  Antiquities  et 

250—375 
Job,  Book  of,  288,  289 
Joel,  Book  of,  301 
John,  (St.)  Account  of,  319.    Design 

and  Analysis  of  his  Gospel,  320, 

321.     Of  his   first   Epi.«t)e,    343— 

345.    Of  his  second  and  third  Eplfi. 

ties,  345,  346.    And  of  his  Revela- 

tion,  347,  349 
Jonah,  Book  of,  297 
Joshua,  Book  of,  281 
Jubilee,  Year  of,  241,  242 
Jude,  Epistle  of,  .346,  347 
Judges,  Book  of,  u'81 
Judges,  powers  of,  283 
Judicature.  Jewish  Courts  of,  191— 

193.     Roman  Courts  of,  193—195 
Judith,  Book  of,  311 


Kings,  (Israelltish,)  powers  and  reve- 
nues of,  183—185.  Duration  of 
the  m<inarchie8  of  Israel  and  Ju- 
dah,  \fO 

Kinj^s,  tw  0  Books  of,  283.  2S4 


Languages  (Original)  of  Scripture^ 

account  of,  67,  70 
Latin  Versions,  ancient,88.  Modern, 

88,  89 
Lallnisms,  170 
Lawyers,  248 

Legal  Proceedings,  191 — 193 
Leprosy,  245 

Letters,  form  of,  m  Manuscript 
Levites,  account  of,  227 
Leviticus,  Book  of,  278 
Libertines,  226,  227 
List  of  the  most  necps.'sary  works  for 

the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  363— 

367 
Literal  Sense,  what,  113 
Luke  (St.)  Gospel  of,  318,  319.     Acts 

of  the  Apostles  written  by  him, 

321,322 


M 


Maccabees,    186,  187.      Apocryphal 

books  of,  314 
Magistrates,  crimes  against,  197 
Malachi,  Book  of,  309,  310 
Man,  creation  and  fall  of,  15 
Manasses,  apocryphal  prayer  of.  314 
Munstt-aling,  i)unlsbmcnt  of,  lv8 
.Mnnu.«crlpt.s,  (Hebrew)  of  the    Old 
Tcfilnnient,  account  of,  71—73.  Ob- 
bervatlons  on  Greek  Manuscripta^ 


INDEX  OP  MATTERS. 


74,  75.  Manuscripta  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  75 — 78 

Mark  (St)  Gospel  o^,  317,  318 

Marriage  customs  of  the  Jews,  254 
—256 

Masora,  notice  of,  79 

Matthew  (St.)  Account  of;  and  of  his 
Gospel,  316,  317 

Measures,  table  of,  351,  352 

Meat  Offerings,  23 1 

Medicine,  slate  of;  eunong  the  Jews, 
269,  270 

Messiah,  Table  of  Prophecies  con- 
cerning, 368,  et  seq.  Observations 
on  the  accomplishment  of  those 
Prophecies,  14S,  149 

Metaphors,  interpretation  of,  134, 
135 

Metonymy,  nature  of,  131.  Inter- 
pretation of  Metonymies,  131 — 134 
Micah,  Book  of,  301,  302 

Military  Affairs  of  the  Jews  and 
other  Nations,  209—213 

Miracle,  defined,  25,  Evidence  of 
25,  26.  Design,  26.  Credibiliy, 
27—29.  Criteria  of,  29,  30.  Ex- 
amination of  some  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament Miracles,  30 ;  and  of  the 
New  Testament  Miracles,  30—34  ; 
particularly  of  Christ's  Resurrec- 
tion, 34,  36.  Comparison  of  Scrip- 
ture Miracles  with  those  ascribetf 
to  Heathens,  37 

Mohammedism,  prevalence  of  no 
objection  to  prophesy,  46 

Money,  tables  of,  352 

Months  of  the  Jews,  205 

Moral  Parts  of  Scripture,  Interpreta- 
tion of,  151,  152 

Morality  of  the  Patriarchal  Religion, 
48.  Of  the  Jewish  Code,  49,  50. 
Of  the  Gospel,  51—  53.  Objections 
of  Unbelievers  to  the  Morality  of 
the  Bible,  refuted,  53—58 

Moses,  Credibility  of,  as  a  writer,  10, 
11.  Summary  of  the  Doctrine  and 
Morals  taught  by  him,  49,  50 

Mountains  of  Palestine,  175 — 178 

Music  of  the  Jews,  268,  269 

Mystical  Sense  of  Scripture,  140. 
Rules  for  the  Mystical  Interpreta- 
tion of  Scripture,  141,  142 


N 


Nahum,  Book  of,  302,  303 
Nazareate,  vow  of,  243 
Nazarites,  230,  243 
Nehemiah,  Book  of,  286,  287 
New  Moon,  feast  of,  237 
New  Testament,  Genuineness   and 
Authenticity  o^  6—8.    Its  uncor- 


rupted  Preservation,  8—10.  Cre- 
dibility, 11 — 14.  Confirmed  by 
profane  Writers,  19—21.  And  by 
ancient  Coins,  Medals,  and  Mar- 
bles, 21—23.  Why  written  in 
Greek,  69.  Account  of  its  style 
and  idioms,  69,  70.  Origin  of 
Chapters  and  Verses  in,  80.  Ana- 
lyses of  the  several  Books  of,  315 
—349.  Table  of  their  dates,  353. 
Numbers,  Book  of,  278,  279 


Oaths,  242 

Obadiah,  Book  of,  306,  307 

Oblations,  voluntary  and  prescri- 
bed, 235 

Old  Testament,  Genuineness  and 
Authenticity  of,  4 — 6.  Its  uncor- 
rupted  Preservation,  8,  9.  Its 
Credibility,  10,  11.  Confirmed  by 
natural  and  civil  History,  14 — 18. 
And  by  Ancient  Coins,  «S£C.,  21. 
Divisions  of,  78 — SO.  Analyses  of 
tlie  several  Books  of,  276—314 
See  Manuscripts,  Versions. 

Olympic  Games,  allusions  to,  272 

Origen's  Biblical  Labours,  notice  0% 
84,  85 


Parables,  nature  of,  136,  137.  In- 
terpretation of,  137,  138 

Parabolic  sense,  141 

Parallel  Passages,  use  of;  for  inter- 
preting Scripture,  118—121 

Nature  of  Parallelism,  especially  the 
poetical  parallelism,  108—111 

Parents,  crimes  against,  197 

Parenthesis,  importance  of,  118 

Passover,  Feast  of,  238 

Patriarchal  Religion,  summary  of, 
48.     Government,  182 

Paul,  (St.)  brief  account  of,  323,324. 
Analysis  of  his  Epistles,  324,339 

Peace  Offerings,  232,  233 

Pentateuch,  observations  on,  276. 
Analysis  of  the  several  Books  o^ 
276—280 

Pentecost,  feast  of,  239 

Persian  Version,  88 

Peter,  (St.)  first  Epistle  o^  341,  342., 
Second  Epistle  of,  343 

Pharisees,  sect  of,  247 

Philemon,  Epistle  to,  337 

Philippians,  Epistle  to,  331, 

Pilate,  account  of,  189 

Plainsof  the  Holy  Land,  179 

Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  nature  and 
species  of,  108— 111— 267,268.   An- 


390 


INDEX  OF  MATTERS. 


alyses  of  the  poetical  books,  288— 
294 

Practical  reading  of  Scripture,  155 
—157 

Prayer,  237 

Preservation  (uncorrupted)  of  Old 
and  New  Testameius,  8—10.  A 
proof  of  their  divine  origin,  58 

Priests,  account  of,  227,  228 

Prisoners,  treatment  of,  among  the 
Romans,  194 

Promises  and  Threatenings  of  Scrip- 
ture, interpretation  of,  152—154 

Properly,  crimes  against,  198 

Prophets,  account  of,  230,231.  Gene- 
ral observations  on,  and  on  their 
writings,  294,  293.  Table  of,  29G. 
Analyses  of  the  prophetical  books, 
297—310 

Prophecy  defined,  37.  Difference 
between  the  pretended  predictions 
of  heathen  oracles,  and  the  Scrip- 
ture prophecies,  37,  38.  Use  and 
intentof  Prophecy,  38.  Prophecies 
relating  to  the  Jews,  39 — 41.  To 
the  nations  or  empires  neighbour- 
ing to  them,  41,  42.  Prophecies 
directly  announcing  the  Messiah, 
42.  Prophecies  by  Jesus  Christ 
and  his  apostles,  43.  Objections 
to  prophecy  refuted,  45—47.  Rules 
for  ascertaining  the  sense  of  the 
prophetic  writings,  145—147.  On 
the  accomplishment  of  Scripture 
prophecy,  147.  Particularly  re- 
specting the  Messiah,  118.  Table 
of  ihe  principal  prophecies  rela- 
tive to  the  Messiah,  4G8,  etseq. 

Proselytes,  226 

Proseuchae  or  Oratories  of  the  Jews, 
223 

Proverbs  of  Scripture,  Interpretation 
of;  138,  139 

Proverbs,  Book  of,  291,  292 

Psalms,  Book  of,  289—291.  Table 
o^  according  to  their  subjects,  354 

Publicans,  208 

Punishments  mentioned  In  Scrip- 
ture, 200—203 

Purifications  of  the  Jews,  244,  245 

Purlm,  Feast  oi;  240 


Cluotatlons  from  the  Old  Testament 
in  the  New,  102.  Tables  Ihereoi; 
102—107 


Rechabltet,  notice  of,  230 


Resurrection,  evidences  of  the  truth 

of,  34—36 
Revelation,  (Divine)  necessity  oi;  I 

Revelation  of  St.  John,  analysis  of 
the  Book  of;  447—449 

Revenues  of  the  Israelitlsh  Kings. 
185 

Rivers  of  the  Holy  Land,  172,  173 

Roman  mode  of  treating  prisoners. 
194;  of  computing  Time,  204.  Al- 
lusions to  the  Roman  Discipline, 
213 

Romans,  Epistle  to,  analysis  of,  327. 
327 

Ruth,  Book  of,  282 


S 


Sabbath,  how  solemnized,  236,  237 

Sabbatical  Year,  241 

Sacred  Obligations  and  Duties,  242 
—245 

Sacred  Persons,  225—231 

Sacred  Places,  214—225 

Sacred  Things,  231—235 

Sacred  Times  and  Seasons,  236— 242 

Sacrifices  of  the  Jews,  231 — 234 

Sadducees,  sect  of,  246 

Salutations,  form  of,  259 

Sanhedrin,  powers  of,  191 

Samaritans  and  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch, account  of,  68,  69 

Samuel,  Two  Books  of,  282,  283 

Sciences  of  the  Jews,  265 — 271 

Scalvonic  Version,  89 

Scope  defined,  115.  Hints  for  ascer- 
taining it,  116 

Scourging,  200 

Scribes,  248 

Scriptures,  genuineness  and  authen- 
ticity of,  1—8.  Tlieir  uncorrupt- 
ed Preservation,  8—10—58.  Cre- 
dit)ility,  10—23.  Inspiration,  24. 
Exu-rnal  proofs  of: — Miracles,  25 
—37.  And  Propiiecy,  37 — 17.  In- 
ternal Evidences  of,"54— 62.  Ina- 
bility to  answer  all  objections,  no 
just  cause  for  rejecting  them,  63. 
Moral  Qualifications  for  reading 
of  them,  66.  Literary  History  and 
Criticism  of,  67—112.  Interpreta- 
tion of  Scripture,  112—154.  Prac- 
tical Reading  of  Scripture,  154— 
157.  Table  of  Select  Chapters  of, 
35.->— 363 

Seas  of  the  Holy  Land,  173,  174 

Sea.ion.s  of  the  Holy   Land,  169 — 171 

.Sects  of  the  Jews,  246—248 

Sepiuagint  Version,  history  of,  84 — 
86 


INDEX  OF  MATTERS. 


391 


Shew-Bread,  Table  of,  221—234 

Sicarii,  248 

Sin  Offerings,  2CM) 

Slaves,  condition  of,  257,  258 

Slaying  wiUi  ihe  Swovd,  201 

Solomon,  Proverbs  of,  291,  292.  Apo- 
cryphal Book  of,  312 

Song  of  Solomon,  analysis  of,  293, 
294 

Song  of  the  three  Children,  313 

Spiritual  Interpretation  of  Scripture, 
140—142 

Spiritual  Sense  of  Scripture,  146. 
Rules  for  the  interpretation  of, 
141,  142 

Stoning,  202 

Subscriptions  to  Books  of  New  Tes- 
tament, 81,  82 

Susanna,  apocryphal  Book  of,  313 

Symmachus,  Greek  Version  of  86 

Synagogues  of  the  Jews,  and  the 
mode  of  worship  there,  223 — 225. 
Representation  of  a  Synagogue 
Roll  of  the  Pentateuch,  71.  De- 
scription of  it,  71 

Synedoche,  139 

Syriac  Versions,  86,  87 

Syriasms,  70 


Tabernacle,  account  of,  214—216 

Tabernacles,  feast  of,  239 

Targums,  notice  of,  82,  83 

Temple  of  Jerusalem  ;  the  Jirst,  218. 
The  second,  218—2.3.  Us  minis- 
ters, 226—230 

Testament.  See  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament 

Theaiiical  Performances,  allusions 
to,  in  the  New  Testament,  271. 
272 

Theft,  punishment  of,  198 

Theocracy,  182 

Theodoiion,  Greek  Version  of,  86 

Thessalonians,  first  Epistle  to,  332, 
333.     Second  Epistle  to,  333 

Time,  computation  of,  204—207 

Timothy,  first  Epistle  to,  334,  335. 
Second  Epistle  to,  335,  336 

Tithes,  235, 

Titus,  Epistle  to,  336,  337 

Tobii,  Book  of,  311 

Trespass  Offerings,  233 

Tributes  and  Taxes,  208 

Tropes  and  Figures,  interpretation 
of,  129—131 

Trumpets,  feast  of,  240 

Types,  interpretation  of,  142—144 


Typical  Sense  of  Scripture,  141 
U 

Unbelievers,  Objections  of,  to  the 
doctrines  and  moral  precepts  of 
the  Bible,  refuted,  53—58 

Unbloody  Sacrifices,  234 

Unclean,  who  were  deemed  so,  244 


Valleys  of  Palestine,  178,  179 

Various  Readings,  Origin,  and  Na- 
ture of,  100,  101 

Vatican  Manuscript,  76,  77 

Verses,  origin  of,  80,  81 

Versions,  Ancient,  of  the  Scriptures, 
82.  Chaldee,  82,  83.  Greek,  83— 
86.  Oriental,  86,  88.  Western, 
88,  89.  Use  of  Ancient  Versions, 
90.  Modern  Versions,  90.  Modern 
Latin  Versions,  90 — 92.  Tables  of 
Versions  in  the  Modern  Languages 
of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  Ame- 
rica, 94—96.  Account  of  English 
Versions,  97—100 

Visits  of  the  Jews,  260 

Vows,  different  kinds  of,  242—244 

Vulgate  Latin  Version,  88,  89 


W 


Watches,  a  division  of  time,  204 

Wetks,  205 

Weights  and  Measures,  table  of,  351, 
352 

Wildernesses  of  Palestine,  179,180 

Winter  in  the  Holy  Land,  170 

Wisdom  of  Solomon,  apocryphal 
Book  of,  312;  and  of  Jetus  the 
son  of  Sirach,  312,  313 

Woids,  Rules  for  investigating  the 
meaning  of,  generally,  114,  115, 
Aids  for  investigating  the  mean- 
ing of  Words,  115—128 

Writing,  art  of,  among  the  Jews, 
266,  267. 


1  Year,  sacred  and  civil,  of  the  Jews, 
206 


Zealots,  248 
Zrchariah,  Book  of,  309 
Zeplianiah,  Bock  of,  303 


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